Egyptian pharaohs. The origin of the pharaohs, periods of the history of Ancient Egypt

IN time immemorial On the territory of modern Egypt, a civilization arose in the Nile Valley, leaving behind many secrets and mysteries. Even now it attracts the attention of researchers and ordinary people with its color, its unusualness and rich heritage.

Thirty Dynasties of Egyptian Rulers

It is not known exactly when the hunting tribes entered the Nile Valley and discovered there was a lot of food and a wide river as a reliable source of water. Years passed. Rural communities organized here increased in size and became richer. Then they divided into two kingdoms - the Lower (in the south) and the Upper (in the north). And in 3200 BC. e. ruler Menes was able to conquer Lower Egypt and organized the first dynasty of pharaohs, under whose control was both the delta and the valley of the great Nile.

Map of a unified Ancient Egypt

During the dynastic period, Ancient Egypt often became the dominant state in the region. This state had a complex social structure, advanced technologies for those times, a powerful army and developed internal trade. In addition, the Egyptians managed to achieve fantastic success in the field of construction - they were able to build effective irrigation systems on the banks of the Nile, huge temples and pyramids that capture the imagination of even modern people. In addition, the Egyptians invented the hieroglyphic writing system, organized an effective judicial system, and did many other important and amazing things.

In total, starting from 3200 BC. e., until the conquest of the Egyptians by the Persians in 342 BC. e. there were thirty dynasties of rulers of Egypt. It's true Egyptian dynasties- that is, their representatives were Egyptians themselves, and not conquerors from distant lands. The last pharaoh of the thirtieth dynasty was Nectanebo II. When the Persians invaded his state, he collected his treasures and fled south.

However, the history of Ancient Egypt, as many believe, does not end there yet. Then Alexander the Great was able to recapture Egypt from the Persians, and subsequently Ptolemy, Alexander's military commander, began to rule this region. Ptolemy I proclaimed himself king of Egypt in 305 BC. e. He used local traditions preserved from the ancient pharaohs to gain a foothold on the throne. This (and the fact that he died of natural causes and not as a result of a conspiracy) shows that Ptolemy was a fairly intelligent ruler. As a result, he managed to create his own special dynasty, which ruled here for more than 250 years. By the way, the last representative of the Ptolemaic dynasty and the last queen of Egypt was the legendary Cleopatra VII Philopator.

Some legendary pharaohs

Pharaohs stood at the top of the social ladder and were considered equal to gods. The pharaohs were given great honors; they were considered so powerful that people were literally afraid to touch them.

The pharaohs traditionally wore an ankh around their necks, a magical symbol and talisman to which the Egyptians gave great importance. There have been many pharaohs over the centuries and millennia of Egypt's existence, but several of them are worth special mention.

Almost the most famous Egyptian pharaoh - Ramses II. He ascended the throne when he was about twenty years old and ruled the country for almost seven decades (from 1279 to 1213 BC). During this time, several generations have changed. And many of the Egyptians who lived at the end of the reign of Ramses II believed that he was a real immortal deity.

Another pharaoh worthy of mention - Djoser. He reigned in the 27th or 28th century BC. e. It is known that during his reign the city of Memphis finally became the capital of the state. However, Djoser went down in history primarily because he built the very first pyramid in Ancient Egypt (it is also the world’s first stone architectural structure). More precisely, it was built by the vizier of Djoser - a man with outstanding abilities named Imhotep. Unlike the later pyramid of Cheops, the pyramid of Djoser consists of steps. Initially, it was surrounded by a wall with 15 doors, and only one of them opened. On this moment there was nothing left of the wall anymore.

There were several female pharaohs in the history of Ancient Egypt. One of them is Hatshepsut, who ruled in the 15th century BC. e. Her name can be translated as “being in front of noble ladies.” Having removed the young Thutmose III from the throne and declaring herself pharaoh, Hatshepsut continued the restoration of Egypt after the Hyksos raids and erected a large number of monuments on the territory of her state. In terms of the number of progressive reforms carried out, she surpassed many male pharaohs.

During the time of Hatshepsut, it was believed that the pharaohs were the incarnations of the god Horus in the earthly world. In order not to sow confusion among the people, the priests reported that Hatshepsut was the daughter of the god Amun. But at many ceremonies, Hatshepsut still appeared in male attire and with a fake beard.

In modern Western culture, Queen Hatspsut has the image of an intelligent, energetic woman endowed with analytical abilities. A place for Hatshepsut was found, for example, in the famous exhibition “The Dinner Party” by artist Judy Chicago, dedicated to the great women who influenced the history of mankind.

Pharaoh Akhenaten, who ruled in the 14th century BC. e.- another popular figure in the history of Ancient Egypt. He carried out truly revolutionary religious reforms. He decided to make the previously insignificant god Aten, associated with the solar disk, the center of the entire religion. At the same time, the cults of all other gods (including Amun-Ra) were prohibited. That is, in fact, Akhenaten decided to create a monotheistic religion.

In his transformations, Akhenaten relied on people who held high positions in the state, but came from commoners. On the other hand, most of the hereditary priestly nobility actively resisted the reforms. Ultimately, Akhenaten lost - after his death, familiar religious practices returned to the everyday life of the Egyptians. Representatives of the new XIX dynasty, which came to power ten years later, abandoned the ideas of Akhenaten, these ideas were discredited.

Pharaoh-reformer Akhenaten, who, according to many scientists, was simply ahead of his time

And a few more words should be said about Cleopatra VII, who ruled Egypt for 21 years. It was truly extraordinary and, apparently, very attractive woman. It is known that she had an affair first with Julius Caesar, and later with Mark Antony. From the first she gave birth to a son, and from the second - two sons and daughters.

And one more interesting fact: Mark Antony and Cleopatra, when they realized that they could not resist Emperor Octavian, who was eager to capture Egypt, began to organize endless drinking bouts and festive feasts. Soon, Cleopatra announced the creation of the “Union of Suicide Bombers,” whose members (and all those close to them were invited to join) swore an oath that they would die together. During the same period, Cleopatra tested poisons on slaves, wanting to find out which of them could bring death quickly and without severe pain.

In general, in 30 BC. e. Cleopatra, like her lover Antony, committed suicide. And Octavian, having established his control over Egypt, turned it into one of the provinces of Rome.

Unique buildings on the Giza plateau

The pyramids on the Giza plateau are the only one of the so-called seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day.

Of greatest interest to Egyptologists and ordinary people is the Pyramid of Cheops. Its construction lasted about two decades and was probably completed in 2540 BC. e. For its construction, 2,300,000 voluminous stone blocks were needed, their total weight was seven million tons. The height of the pyramid is now 136.5 meters. The architect of this pyramid is called Hemiun, the vizier of Cheops.

Pharaoh Cheops gained the reputation of a classical despot. Some sources report that Cheops used harsh measures to force the population to work on the construction of the pyramid. The very name of Cheops after he died was allegedly prohibited from being pronounced. And Egypt's resources were so depleted as a result of his rule that it led to the weakening of the country and the end of the Fourth Dynasty.

The second largest ancient Egyptian pyramid on the same plateau is the Pyramid of Khafre, son of Cheops. It is indeed a little smaller, but at the same time it is located on a higher hill and has a steeper slope. The Pyramid of Khafre has the shape of a regular quadrangular figure with sides of 210.5 meters. Inside there is one burial chamber with an area of ​​71 m2, which once contained the sarcophagus of the pharaoh. This chamber can be accessed through one of two tunnels.

The third pyramid is the pyramid of Pharaoh Mikerin- was erected later than the other two. Its height barely reaches 66 meters, the length of its square base is 108.4 meters, and its volume is 260 thousand cubic meters. It is known that once the lower part of the pyramid was decorated with red Aswan granite, a little higher the granite was replaced by white limestone. And finally, at the very top, red granite was used again. Unfortunately, the cladding has not been preserved; in the Middle Ages, the Mamelukes took it from here and used it for their own needs. The burial chamber in this pyramid is located at ground level.

Near the three pyramids, everyone can see Great Sphinx- lion statue with human face. The length of this statue is 72 meters and the height is 20 meters. There was once a sanctuary located between the front paws. The exact time of creation of the Sphinx is unknown - there is debate about this. Some believe that it was built by Chefren, others say that it was Jephedra, another son of Cheops. There are also versions that the Sphinx appeared much earlier, about twelve thousand years ago (allegedly the ancient Egyptians simply dug it up during the dynastic period), and very dubious versions that the Sphinx was created by aliens.

Features of society and lifestyle of the ancient Egyptians

The Egyptians believed that after death they would face the judgment of the god Osiris, who would put their good and bad deeds on different scales. And in order for good deeds to outweigh, it is necessary to behave appropriately in earthly life.

In addition, it was important for the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt that their afterlife be similar to earthly life. Therefore, it was necessary to carefully prepare for the transition to another world. A wealthy Egyptian built an afterlife house for himself in advance. When the pharaoh died, not only his body was placed in his tomb, but also many things that could be useful in another life - clothes, jewelry, furniture, etc. In this regard, the fact that the first pyramids were stepped - probably the steps were required so that the pharaoh could ascend to the world of the gods.

Egyptian society consisted of several classes and social status was of great importance here. Wealthy Egyptians had wigs and elaborate headdresses in fashion, and they got rid of their own hair. In this way the problem of lice was solved. But poor people had a hard time - among them it was not customary to cut their hair to zero.

The main clothing of the Egyptians was the usual loincloth. But rich people, as a rule, also wore shoes. And the pharaohs were accompanied everywhere by sandal bearers - there was such a special position.

Another fun fact: For a long time in Egypt, transparent dresses were popular among wealthy women. In addition, to demonstrate their social status, Egyptian women (and Egyptians too) wore necklaces, bracelets and other similar accessories.

Some professions in ancient Greek society - warrior, official, priest - were inherited. However, achieving a significant position, thanks to your talents and skills, was also quite possible.

Most able-bodied Egyptians were employed in agriculture, handicrafts, or the service sector. And at the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. They usually played the role of servants, but at the same time they had the right to buy and sell goods and receive freedom. And having become free, they could eventually even enter the nobility. The humane treatment of slaves is also evidenced by the fact that they were entitled to medical care at the workplace.

In general, Egyptian healers were very enlightened for their time. They were well versed in the characteristics of the human body and carried out very complex operations. According to research by Egyptologists, even transplanting some organs was not a problem for local healers. It is also interesting that in Ancient Egypt, some of the infectious diseases were treated with moldy bread - this can be considered a kind of analogue of modern antibiotics.

Also, the Egyptians actually invented mummification. The process looked like this: internal organs were removed and placed in vessels, and soda was applied to the body itself so that it did not decompose. After the body dried, its cavities were filled with flax soaked in a special balm. And finally, at the last stage, the body was bandaged and closed in a sarcophagus.

Relations between men and women in ancient Egypt

In ancient Egypt, men and women had almost equal legal rights. At the same time, the mother was considered the head of the family. Pedigree was strictly traced through the maternal line and land ownership also passed from mother to daughter. Of course, the husband had the right to dispose of the land while his wife was alive, but when she died, the daughter received the entire inheritance. It turns out that a marriage with the heir to the throne could well give a man the right to rule the country. This was also the reason why the pharaoh took his sisters and daughters as wives - he thus protected himself from other possible contenders for power.

Marriages in Ancient Egypt were mostly monogamous. However, a wealthy Egyptian man, along with his legal wife, could maintain a concubine. On the other hand, a woman who had more than one man could be punished.

Marriage in Ancient Egypt was not sanctified by priests, and the Egyptians did not organize lavish wedding festivities either. For the wedding to be recognized as valid, the man had to say, “I take you as my wife,” and the woman had to answer, “You take me as your wife.” It is important to add here that it was the Egyptians who were the first to wear wedding rings on ring finger- this custom was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.

Ancient Egyptian newlyweds also exchanged gifts among themselves. Moreover, in the event of a divorce, you could return your gift (a very good custom). And in the later periods of the history of Ancient Egypt, the conclusion of marriage contracts became a fairly common practice.

Documentary film “Ancient Egypt. The history of the creation of ancient Egyptian civilization"

Half-human, half-god, these rulers were well aware of their own greatness and the sacredness of their duty, imbued with the need to worship the gods, serve the state and fulfill obligations to their subjects, whose love most of them managed to win. Politicians and soldiers, from Narmer to Nectanebo, they were all, to one degree or another, outstanding builders.

According to Maneton, the history of Ancient Egypt occupies a period of approximately six thousand years on the chronological axis. Today, most researchers suggest that in fact this historical period begins in the 4th millennium BC. e. and ends with the Christian era, which is about three thousand two hundred years.

Three thousand years, marked by the reigns of these amazing half people, half gods - the pharaohs of ancient Egypt... It was Maneton who first divided the lists of these into thirty dynasties outstanding personalities, who were at the same time deities and rulers, heads of state and great priests, military leaders and politicians, conquerors, sorcerers, builders, fathers and spiritual leaders of the people, whose unconditional worship they enjoyed. In our article we will briefly tell you about the greatest of this long list who brought glory to Egypt, from Narmer, the founder of the Egyptian state, to Nectanebo II, who became the last pharaoh of Egypt.

Narmer and the unification of Egypt

Let's start with who gave the Egyptian state unity. Narmer, also called Menes, became the ruler who gave Ancient Egypt impetus for development and led it to power and prosperity. Coming from the south, he conquered the northern territories and thereby united the Two Lands, Upper and Lower Egypt. Starting from him, both the northern and southern kingdoms will be ruled by one pharaoh. This is how Ancient Egypt was formed. Being a far-sighted politician, Narmer divided the country into numerous provinces, nomes, which were simultaneously economic, administrative and religious units. This ruler, who built his capital, Memphis, in a symbolic place on the edge of the Nile Delta, according to legend, died while hunting, becoming the victim of a hippopotamus.

Djoser, the founder of the Third Dynasty, was “Magnificent” in the eyes of his people. His reign became a period of peace and harmony. And in addition, the “stone” period - because it was then that the Egyptians first began to use this material in construction. In addition, Djoser’s merit is that he managed to surround himself with talented and far-sighted advisers, among whom was, for example, Imhotep, the grand vizier and a brilliant architect, who contributed greatly to the glory of his master.

The founder of the IV dynasty, Snofru, also left his mark on history, becoming one of the greatest builder pharaohs. His reign was characterized by the peace and prosperity that reigned in Egypt at that time.

It is difficult to separate the images of the great pharaohs of ancient Egypt - Cheops, Khafre and Mikerin, the three colossi of Giza. Although we know little about the lives of these three rulers, one thing is clear: even more than five thousand years after their death, the great pyramids that they built continue to rise as if nothing had happened on the Giza plateau, near Cairo, having become unshakable symbols of the power of Egyptian civilization and its architectural genius. The three pyramids, a true challenge to eternity, have not yet revealed all their secrets, and the technique with which they were built still remains a mystery.

AND AFTER NECTANEBO?

We limited our story only to the Egyptian pharaohs, but how can we not remember Alexander the Great, who crowned himself pharaoh in Memphis, Alexander, who, according to legend, was the son of Nectanebo I, the last Egyptian pharaoh? Later, the vast empire of the Macedonian conqueror would be divided among his military leaders, and one of them, Ptolemy, son of Lagus, would appropriate the Egyptian lands for himself. He will become the founder of the new Lagid dynasty, one of the most famous representatives of which will be Queen Cleopatra.

Long reign of Pepi II

According to legend, Pepi II, whose reign was central to the era

VI Dynasty, occupied the throne for ninety years. Egypt, which he ruled, was at that time the greatest state in the world. However, the extraordinary length of the reign of Pepi II caused the weakening of the central government, hitherto very strong. Under him, a turmoil began that led Egypt to the first of its greatest declines, the so-called “transitional periods.”

Senwosret I, the second pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty, became one of the most prominent pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom. Surprisingly, this pharaoh, who was primarily a soldier, is famous for his peaceful reign. However, it should be noted that in order to maintain peace within the country, Senusret I was forced to fight endlessly, preventing Egypt's enemies from crossing the borders of the kingdom. The great builder and wise ruler Senusret I made Lisht, a city located near the rich province of Fayum, his capital, and managed to come to an agreement with the clergy of Amon in Thebes, which still had enormous influence.

The reign of Senusret III symbolizes the apogee of the Middle Kingdom, which was a harmonious period in all respects.

Being at the same time a military leader and commander, he was able to wisely and at the same time firmly rule the kingdom, withstanding the onslaught of external enemies with dignity. As a true connoisseur of the arts, Senusret decorated Egypt with monuments that testify to the golden age of classical Egyptian architecture.

Ahmose, whom the people called the Liberator, was a young Theban prince whose main achievement was the liberation of the country from oppressive foreign rule - from the power of the Hyksos, which led to a real revival of civilization. Ahmose founded the XVIII dynasty, which went down in the history of Ancient Egypt as one of the greatest. She, in turn, marked the beginning of one of the most brilliant periods in this history.

Thutmose I, father of Hatshepsut

Thutmose I did not have the blood of pharaohs in his veins, but he was chosen as the heir of Amenhotep I, whose comrade-in-arms he was, not for his origin, but for his valor and courage. By the time this young military leader assumed the royal crown, he was already the father of a girl who was destined for a great future: her name was Hatshepsut.

Hatshepsut ascended to the Egyptian throne after the premature death of her husband, who died in the third year of his reign. Beautiful, smart and educated, the young queen had a huge influence on her environment. Formally, she was only a regent, because the heir of the late pharaoh, the son of one of the concubines, was only five years old. Thus, the future Thutmose III was both the stepson and nephew of the queen.

Hatshepsut's reign came during a period of peace and prosperity in Egypt. Its main masterpiece in the field of architecture remains the mortuary temple of Deir el-Bahri, located near Thebes and built in a place dedicated to the goddess Hathor.

In the end, Thutmose III still inherited from his aunt and stepmother. The young ancient Egyptian pharaoh had to languish with impatience behind the scenes of power for too long, and he unleashed his anger on the regent, ordering the destruction of everything that could remind of her rule. The new pharaoh showed himself to be an active and energetic king and conqueror with good political instincts and a love of power. It was he who made the largest conquests in the history of Ancient Egypt. Thutmose left behind an empire that stretched from the banks of the Euphrates to Sudan.

PHAROAH IN THE CHRONOLOGY OF EGYPT

In this article we talk about the pharaohs in chronological order: Nar-mer was a representative of the 1st dynasty (c. 3000 BC)| Djoser - III Dynasty (c. 2690 BC); Snofru, Cheops, Khafre and Miyorin „- IV dynasty (c. 2625 BC); Pepi II -VI dynasty (c. 2200 BC); Senusret I and Senusret III - XII dynasty (c. 1900 BC); Ahmose, Thutmose I, Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) and Tutankhamun - XVIII dynasty (c. 1543-1295 BC); Seti I and Ramesses II-XX dynasties (c. 1200 BC); Ramesses III - XXI dynasties (c. 1070 BC); Nectanebo II -XXX dynasty (c. 340 BC).

Heretical couple from Amarna

Amenhotep IV was the seventh ruler of the 18th dynasty, a pharaoh who suffered a most amazing and mysterious fate. He went down in history under the name Akhenaten, which he adopted, imposing on his country the most daring and most revolutionary religious reform. This young ruler, about whose personality we still do not know much, just as we do not know the reasons that prompted him to make this choice, took as his wife a young princess of extraordinary beauty: Queen Nefertiti. Its origin, like its fate, remains a mystery.

The royal couple rejected the cult of Amun, accepting and imposing on their people the single god Aten. The couple left the old capital, Thebes, and founded a new one, more in line with their dream - Amarna. As we know, the enterprise of Akhenaten and Nefertiti ended badly for them, but nevertheless it left an indelible mark on the history of Ancient Egypt in the form of an original artistic movement: the Amarna school.

Although Tutankhamun became the most famous pharaoh in the history of this country, this has nothing to do with either the originality or the greatness of his reign. He became famous only because on November 4, 1922, British Egyptologist Howard Carter opened his tomb, and this tomb revealed untold treasures that continue to fascinate us. We know little about the reign itself and the personality of this pharaoh: only that he did not reign for long, because he died young.

Ramesses II - winner of the Battle of Kadesh

But we know much more about the personality of Seti I, the son of Ramesses I and the father of Ramesses II, who was a soldier, a great builder and an outstanding ruler, whom the Egyptian people dearly loved.

It was from Seti I that the future Ramesses II learned the craft of pharaoh. He was only sixteen years old when his father died, but despite his youth, he immediately took the throne. Shortly after his coronation, Ramesses demonstrated that he aspired to become a great ruler. His main task was to ensure the security of empires. The pharaoh achieved his goal at the cost of numerous campaigns against the Hittites, whom he finally defeated at Kadesh. This victory was followed by the signing of a treaty that brought Egypt four decades of peace and prosperity. Ramesses II died at the age of eighty-three, having reigned for sixty-seven years. The extraordinary splendor of the monuments with which he decorated his country made him one of the most outstanding rulers in the history of Ancient Egypt.

The third bearer of this name became another colossus from the glorious Ramesses dynasty. He also had to fight for a long time to protect the country's borders, which were constantly under attack from its neighbors - in this case, the Libyans. However, he was the last of the great pharaohs of Egypt. Less than a hundred years will pass after his death, and the New Kingdom, along with the XX Dynasty, will no longer exist.

Now let's take a big leap in time, skip III transition period and most of the so-called Late period, when Egypt was ruled first by the Nubian pharaohs, and then by the Persian dynasties, and we will tell you who is considered the last Egyptian pharaoh.

Nectanebo, last and brave

Nectanebo II, the third and last pharaoh of the XXX dynasty, managed to return peace and stability to his country. He was still a military commander leading the Egyptian army when Pharaoh Tachos suffered a serious defeat in battle with the Persians. Returning to Egypt, Nectanebo managed to prevent a civil war and stop the unrest that began after the fall of Tachos. After this, he was recognized as a pharaoh and crowned himself.

The new ruler tried to take advantage of the alliance with the Greeks to resist the Persians. However, the latter managed to create a military power, in the face of which both the Egyptians and their allies were powerless. They were defeated, and Artaxerxes III, king of the Persians, founded the XXXI dynasty. Alas, there will never again be Egyptian pharaohs on the throne of Ancient Egypt.

Pharaoh played a special role in the life of the Egyptians. This word cannot be translated as king, king or emperor. The pharaoh was the supreme ruler and at the same time the high priest. Pharaoh was a god on earth and a god after death. He was treated like a god. His name was not taken in vain. The term “pharaoh” itself came from the combination of two Egyptian words per - aa, which meant a great house. This is how they spoke about Pharaoh allegorically, so as not to call him by name. According to the beliefs of the Egyptians, the first pharaoh was the god Ra himself. Other gods ruled behind him. Later, the son of Osiris and Isis, the god Horus, appears on the throne. The choir was considered the prototype of all Egyptian pharaohs, and the pharaohs themselves were his earthly incarnation. Every real pharaoh was considered a descendant of both Ra and Horus. Full name The pharaoh consisted of five parts, the so-called titulature. The first part of the title was the name of the pharaoh as the incarnation of the god Horus. The second part was the name of the pharaoh as the incarnation of two mistresses - the goddess of Upper Egypt Nekhbet (depicted in the form of a kite) and the goddess of Lower Egypt Wadjet (in the form of a cobra). Sometimes the “sustained phenomenon of Ra” was added here. The third part of the name was the name of the pharaoh as the “golden Horus.” The fourth part included the personal name of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt. For example, the personal name of Pharaoh Thutmose 3 was Men - Kheper - Ra. And finally, the fifth part of the title was what can be roughly translated as patronymic. It was preceded by the words “son of Ra”, and then followed by the second name of the pharaoh, for example, Thutmose - Nefer - Kheper. It was this that usually served as the official name of the pharaoh. It was also believed that pharaohs appear from the marriage of the queen, the wife of the pharaoh, with some deity. The kinship in the dynasty of pharaohs was carried out through the maternal line. It was not only men who ruled. In history, Queen Hatshepsut was known. In all Egyptian temples, the living pharaoh was sung as a god, and pharaoh himself addressed prayers to the gods. In the minds of the Egyptians themselves, the pharaoh was represented as a god-man. It was believed that there was an unbreakable agreement between the gods and the pharaohs. According to it, the gods granted the pharaoh longevity, personal well-being and prosperity of the state, and the pharaoh, for his part, ensured the observance of the cult, the construction of temples, and the like. He was the only mortal who had access to the gods. Sometimes the pharaoh personally participated in the beginning of agricultural work, which was of a sacred nature. He threw a scroll into the Nile with the order to begin the flood, he begins preparing the soil for sowing, he is the first to cut the first sheaf at the harvest festival and offers a thanksgiving sacrifice to the goddess of the harvest, Renenut. In Egypt there was a constant struggle for the throne of Upper and Lower Egypt. Priests played an important role in it. Sometimes they founded a new dynasty of pharaohs. Often the pharaohs were puppets in the hands of the high priest. The fight went on almost without a break. With the weakening of the state, separatist sentiments immediately reared their heads in various regions of Egypt.

Pharaoh- this is the son of God. His main duty is to bring gifts to the gods and build temples for them. Ramses III addressed the gods this way: “I am your son, created by your hands... You created perfection for me on earth. I will fulfill my duty in peace. My heart tirelessly seeks what needs to be done for your sanctuaries.” Next, Ramesses III tells which temples he built and which he restored. Each pharaoh built himself a tomb - a pyramid. The pharaoh also appointed governors of nomes (nomarchs), chief officials, and the chief priest of Amon. During the war, the pharaoh led the army. According to tradition, the pharaohs brought trees and shrubs unknown to the Egyptians from long campaigns. The pharaohs paid great attention to the construction of irrigation systems and personally supervised the construction of canals.

Awards for the best
The pharaohs valued and in every possible way encouraged their military leaders and officials, who served as the main support of their power and might and brought them wealth. After the campaign, rewards were given to those who distinguished themselves. Sometimes one person received the reward. A big celebration was held in honor of the victory. Luxurious gifts were laid out on tables. Only the highest nobility were allowed to attend the celebration.

Coronation
The ritual of the coronation of the pharaohs was subject to established rules. But at the same time, there were no differences depending on the day of the ritual. It depended on which god the coronation day was dedicated to. For example, the coronation of Ramesses III took place on the holiday of the god Min, the lord of the desert and fertility. The pharaoh himself led the solemn procession. He appeared in a chair, which was carried on a stretcher by the king's sons and high officials, which was considered a great honor. The eldest son, the heir, walked in front of the stretcher. The priests carried a censer with incense. A scroll in the hands of one of the priests represented the program of the holiday. Approaching Min's dwelling, the pharaoh performed the ritual of incense and libation. Then the queen appeared. Next to her walked a white bull with a solar disk between its horns - a symbolic personification of God. It was also fumigated with incense. The procession sang hymns. The priests carried wooden statues of various pharaohs. Only one of them, the apostate Akhenaten, was forbidden to “appear” at the festival. The pharaoh aimed four arrows in each direction of the world: thereby he symbolically defeated all his enemies. With the singing of hymns, the ceremony comes to its final stage: the ruler thanks Min and brings him gifts. The procession then retired to the pharaoh's palace.

Personal life of the pharaoh
The pharaohs had different attitudes towards their wives and families. For example, Akhenaten almost never left his palace. He loved his wife, mother and daughters dearly. Reliefs have reached us that depict his family during their walks. They went to church together, the whole family even took part in receiving foreign ambassadors. If Akhenaten had one wife, then Ramses II had five, and they all bore the title of “great royal wife.” Considering that this pharaoh reigned for sixty-seven years, this is not that long. However, in addition to official wives, he also had many concubines. From both of them he left 162 offspring.

Dwelling of Eternity
No matter how important the concerns of life were, Pharaoh had to think in advance what his eternal dwelling would be like. Building even a small pyramid was not an easy task. Granite or alabaster blocks suitable for this were found only in two places - on the Giza and Saqqara plateaus. Later, entire halls connected by passages began to be cut down in the Theban mountains for the rest of the pharaohs. The sarcophagus was considered the main thing in the funeral ceremony. The pharaoh personally visited the workshop where the sarcophagus was being made for him, and meticulously observed the work. He cared not only about the burial place, but also about the objects that would accompany him in the afterlife. The wealth and variety of utensils is amazing. After all, in the world of Osiris, the pharaoh had to continue his usual life.

On the last journey
The funeral of the pharaoh was a special spectacle. Relatives sobbed and wringed their hands sadly. Undoubtedly, they sincerely mourned for the departed. But it was believed that this was not enough. Professional mourners and mourners, who were excellent actors, were specially invited. Having smeared their faces with mud and stripped themselves to the waist, they tore their clothes, sobbed, moaned and beat themselves on the head. The funeral procession symbolized the relocation from one house to another. In the other world, the pharaoh should not have needed anything. At the front of the procession were carried pies, flowers and jugs of wine. Next came funeral furniture, chairs, beds, as well as personal belongings, utensils, boxes, canes and much more. The procession concluded with a long line of jewels. And here is the mummy of the pharaoh in the tomb. The wife falls to her knees and wraps her arms around him. And at this time, the priests perform an important mission: they place “trismas” on the tables - bread and mugs of beer. Then they put in an adze, a cleaver in the shape of an ostrich feather, a dummy of a bull's leg, a palette with two curls on the edges: these items are needed to eliminate the effects of embalming and give the deceased the opportunity to move. After performing all the rituals, the mummy is immersed in a stone “grave” to go to better world and lead a new life.

And so, I propose to collect all the dynasties and their kings into a single list. But first I would like to highlight the most famous and outstanding of them.

Let's start with Narmer. This is a pharaoh of the Predynastic era. He became the first pharaoh to make Memphis his residence.

Sneferu, pharaoh of the 4th dynasty. Rare pieces of furniture were found in the tomb of his queen Neteferis in Giza, which are today kept in the Cairo Museum.

Khufu, pharaoh of the 4th dynasty, builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza.
Khafre (Khefren), pharaoh of the 4th dynasty, builder of the second pyramid at Giza. The Great Sphinx of the pyramid is an image of King Khafre.

Piopi II, pharaoh of the 6th dynasty, who reached ninety years of age and reigned longer than all other known pharaohs. Mentuhotep, pharaoh of the 11th dynasty. He united Egypt, which was in decline after a long period of internal strife.

Further, Amenemhet I, pharaoh of the 12th dynasty. He usurped the throne of his predecessor, introduced the worship of the Theban god Amun into the cult, and also appointed his son Senusret I as his co-ruler.
Senusret III, pharaoh of the 12th dynasty, known for his bravery. He abolished the privileged position of all provincial officials (nomarchs), fought against Nubia, and also built numerous fortresses in the area of ​​the second cataract of the Nile to prevent raids from the territory of Nubia and protect the Egyptian gold miners working here.
Ahmose , pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He saved Egypt from the Hyksos invasion and pursued the expelled Hyksos all the way to Southern Canaan.

Amenhotep I, son of Ahmose, pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, revered by subsequent generations (along with his mother Queen Nefertari) as one of the gods.
Thutmose I, pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He waged a fierce struggle with the Kingdom of Mitanni and, together with his troops, reached the Euphrates River in Syria.

Hatshepsut, queen of the 18th dynasty. The most significant among several women who held the Egyptian throne in the entire history of the country.
Thutmose III, pharaoh of the 18th dynasty. He led over 20 victorious campaigns against Egyptian enemies, reaching the fourth cataract of the Nile in Sudan.
Ekhpaton (or Amenhotep IV) , pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, most famous of the pharaohs of ancient Egypt as the organizer of a religious, social and cultural revolution. He introduced the cult of the supreme main god - the Sun God Aten and built a new capital in el-Amarna. His wife was the beautiful Nefertiti, whose beautiful bust is kept in the Berlin Museum.

Tutankhamun , pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty, who died at the age of eighteen and became widely known thanks to the dramatic discovery of his hitherto intact tomb in the Valley of the Kings (Western Luxor). The treasures found in it occupy a large section of the second floor of the Egyptian Museum.

Next Networks I , pharaoh of the 19th dynasty. The first king to display monumental images of his military battles on the wall of the temple at Karnak. The gigantic pillared hall of this temple was partially built during his reign.
Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great), pharaoh of the 19th dynasty, who reigned for 67 years.
Perhaps it was during the years of his reign that the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt occurred. He is responsible for the construction of the largest number of the most magnificent monuments of Egyptian antiquity. In the battle of the Egyptians with the Hittites at Kadesh, 4,000 troops took part on the Egyptian side. He later signed a peace treaty with them and married at least two daughters of the Hittite king. There was a rumor that he was the father of 100 sons. He built a common tomb for many of his children in the Valley of the Kings. The tomb of his wife, Queen Nefertari, is the most beautiful in the Valley of the Queens. During his reign, the rock temple at Abu Simbel was cut down.
Ramesses III, pharaoh of the 19th dynasty, during which the famous naval battle of the Egyptians with the Sea Peoples took place, then depicted on the walls of his well-preserved funeral temple in Medinet Habu (Western Luxor). The Philistines are also depicted here for the first time. He was killed as a result of a palace conspiracy.
Shoshenq I, pharaoh of the 22nd dynasty, biblical king Shishak, Libyan by origin. His accession to the throne occurs around the time of the death of the biblical King Solomon. A large list of his conquests in Israel, Judah and other places is carved on the wall of his Temple at Karnak.

Further, Pi(ankhi), Pharaoh of the 25th dynasty, of Nubian origin. Having captured Egypt, he ruled it as an Egyptian king. His victory over Libyan forces in the Nile Delta was immortalized on a triumphal stele now in the Egyptian Museum. He is also known to be a special lover of horses. He and other kings of this dynasty reintroduced the old customs royal burial in the pyramids.
Psammetichus I, pharaoh of the 26th dynasty who restored the rule of the native Egyptians. Its capital was Sais, a city in the western Nile Delta. He ruled during the heyday of classical Greece, recruited Greeks and Carians into his service, and encouraged Greek merchants to found several Greek cities in Egypt.
Amasis , pharaoh of the 26th dynasty, fought against the Babylonians who invaded Syria - Palestine, but could not prevent the destruction of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem.

Perhaps now we can return to full list. Of course, not all the names of the kings have reached us, but those that we have will be given here. To begin with, it is worth saying that the mythical ten kings of Thinis are included in the 0th dynasty. After the IV Dynasty, pharaohs, with some exceptions, upon accession to the throne received an official name, consisting of the pharaoh's own name and the name of the sun god Ra.

Dynasty I: Narmer (Less), Axa, Jer, Jet, Udi-mu, Merpaba, Semerkhet, Kaa.

A total of 8 kings reigning for 253 years.

II dynasty: Hotep-ahaui, Ra-neb, Netheri-mu, Peribsen, Ha-sekhemui, Ka-Ra, Ha-sekhemui.

There were 9 kings in total, reigning for 302 years.

III Dynasty: Sa-Nekht, Djoser-Neterkhet, Snefru.

There are 9 kings in total, and 214 years and reigns.

Ancient kingdom

IV dynasty: Sharu, Khufu, Khafra, Men-kau-Ra, Dadef-Ra, Shepses-kaf, Sebek-ka-Ra.

8 kings, and 284 years of their reign.

V Dynasty: Userkaf, Sahu-Ra, Shepses-ka-Ra, Neferf-Ra, Ni-user-Ra, Men-kau-Hor, Dad-ka-Ra-Isesi, Venis.

A total of 9 kings reigning for 248 years.

VI dynasty: Teti, User-ka-Ra, Pepi I, Meren-Ra, Pepi II, Mezhti-em-saf, Neter-ka-Ra, Queen Neit-akert.

There are 6 kings in total, reigning for 203 years.

First transition period

VII Dynasty: The 70 kings of Memphis who reigned for 70 days.

VIII dynasty includes 27 Memphis kings, 146 years.

IX Dynasty: 19 kings reigning for 409 years.

X Dynasty : 10 kings, 185 years.

Middle Kingdom

XI Dynasty: Intef I, Intef II, Mentu-hotep I, Mentu-hotep II, Mentu-hotep III, Mentu-hotep IV.

There are 16 kings in total, and their reign lasted 43 years.

XII Dynasty: Amonemhet I, Senusret, Amenemhet II, Senusret II, Senusret III, Amonemhet III, Amonemhet IV, Queen Sebek-nefru.

We get 8 kings, 160 years of reign.

XIII Dynasty

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Second transition period

XIV Dynasty: 76 kings, 184 years of reign.

XV dynasty includes 6 foreign Phoenician kings who reigned for 284 years.

XVI Dynasty: 32 shepherd Greek kings, 518 years old.

New kingdom

XVII Dynasty: Sekenen-Ra I, Sekenen-Ra II, Sekenen-Ra III, Kamee.

There were 43 shepherd kings and 43 Theban rulers. Together they reigned for 151 years.

XVIII Dynasty: Ahmes I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose II, Queen Hatshepsut, Thothmes III Men-Kheper-Ra, Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV, Amenhotep III, Amenhotep IV Akhenatep, Smenkh-ka-Ra, Tut-ankh-Amon, Au, Haremheb.

There are 16 kings in total, reigning for 263 years.

XIX Dynasty: Ramesses I, Setehi I, Ramesses II, Mer-en-Ptah, Setehi II, Amon-mes, Si-Ptah, Setekh-nekht.

Total 8 kings, 209 years.

XX Dynasty: Ramesses III, Ramesses IV, Ramesses V, Ramesses VI, Ramesses VII, Ramesses VIII, Ramesses IX, Ramesses X.

There were 12 kings in total who reigned for 135 years.

Late period

XXI Dynasty: Herihor Smendes, Pianhi Paseb-khanu I, Pinedjem I Amonemipt, Masaharta Si-Amon, Pinedjem II, Paseb-khanu II.

Total 7 kings, 130 years.

XXII Dynasty: Sheshenq I, Osorkon I, Takelot I, Osorkon II, Sheshenq II, Takelot II, Sheshenq III, Pami, Sheshenq IV

A total of 9 kings, reigning for 126 years.

XXIII Dynasty: Piankhi I, Pedubast Osorkon III, Takelot III.

Only 4 kings, 28 years of reign.

XXIV Dynasty: Shabaka, Piankhi II, Shabataka, Taharqa, Tanutamon.

5 kings, 40 years of reign.

XXVI Dynasty: Necho I, Psamtek I, Necho II, Psamtek II, Psamtek III, Apris (Khophra), Amasis II, Psamtek IV.

There are only 9 kings, reigning for 150 years and 6 months.

Persian period

XXVII Dynasty: 8 Persian kings, 124 years and 4 months of their reign.

XXVIII Dynasty: Amirtei (6 years old).

XXIX Dynasty: 4 kings, 20 years and 4 months of their reign.

XXX dynasty: Nectanebo I, Jeher Nectanebo II.

There are only 3 kings, reigning for 38 years.

Conquest of Alexander the Great 332 BC e.

Ptolemaic period: Ptolemy I Soter I, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Ptolemy III Eurgeitis I, Ptolemy IV Philopatra, Ptolemy V Epiphanes, Ptolemy VI Philometer, Ptolemy VII Eurgetis II, Ptolemy VIII Eupater, Ptolemy IX Neos Philopatra, Ptolemy X Soter II, Ptolemy XI Alexander I, Ptolemy XII Alexander II, Ptolemy XIII Philopatra, Ptolemy XIV Philopatra, Ptolemy XV Philopatra, Cleopatra.

Capture by Octavius ​​(Octavian) 30 BC. e.

The word "pharaoh" owes its origin to the Greek language. It is noteworthy that it was found even in the Old Testament.

Mysteries of history

As the ancient legend says, the first pharaoh of Egypt - Menes - later became the most popular deity. However, in general, information about these rulers is rather vague. We cannot even say that they all actually existed. The Predynastic period is covered most fully in this regard. Historians identify specific people who ruled Southern and Northern Egypt.

Attributes

The ancient pharaohs of Egypt underwent a mandatory coronation ceremony. The location of the traditional ceremonial event was Memphis. The new divine rulers received symbols of power from the priests. Among them were a diadem, a scepter, a whip, crowns and a cross. The last attribute was shaped like the letter “t” and was topped with a loop, symbolizing life itself.

The scepter was a short staff. Its upper end was curved. This attribute of power originated from such a thing could belong not only to kings and gods, but also to high officials.

Peculiarities

The ancient pharaohs of Egypt, like sons, could not appear before their people with their heads uncovered. The main royal headdress was the crown. There were many varieties of this symbol of power, among which are the White Crown of Upper Egypt, the Red Crown “Deshret”, the Crown of Lower Egypt, as well as the “Pschent” - a double version consisting of the White and Red Crowns (symbolizing the unity of the two kingdoms). The power of the pharaoh in Ancient Egypt even extended to space - so strong was the admiration for each heir of the creator of the world. However, it would be wrong to say that all pharaohs were despotic rulers and sole rulers of destinies.

Some ancient images depict the pharaohs of Egypt with headscarves covering their heads. This royal attribute was gold with blue stripes. Often a crown was placed on him.

Appearance

According to tradition, the ancient pharaohs of Egypt were clean-shaven. Another external one distinguishing feature rulers - a beard, which symbolized male strength and divine power. It is noteworthy that Hatshepsut also wore a beard, albeit a fake one.

Narmer

This pharaoh is a representative of the 0th or 1st dynasty. He reigned around the end of the third millennium BC. The slab from Hierakonpolis depicts him as the ruler of the united lands of Upper and Lower Egypt. The mystery remains why his name is not included in the royal lists. Some historians believe that Narmer and Menes are the same person. Many people still argue about whether all the ancient pharaohs of Egypt are truly non-fictional characters.

Significant arguments in favor of the reality of Narmer are found objects such as a mace and a palette. The oldest artifacts glorify the conqueror of Lower Egypt named Narmer. It is stated that he was the predecessor of Menes. However, this theory also has its opponents.

Menes

First time to edit the whole country became Menes. This pharaoh marked the beginning of the First Dynasty. Based on archaeological evidence, it can be assumed that his reign was around 3050 BC. Translated from ancient Egyptian, his name means “strong”, “durable”.

Legends dating back to the Ptolemaic era tell us that Menes did a lot to unite the northern and southern parts countries. In addition, his name was mentioned in the chronicles of Herodotus, Pliny the Elder, Plutarch, Aelian, Diodorus and Manetho. It is believed that Menes is the founder of Egyptian statehood, writing and cults. In addition, he initiated the construction of Memphis, where his residence was located.

Menes was famous as a wise politician and an experienced military leader. However, the period of his reign is characterized differently. According to some sources, life for ordinary Egyptians became worse under the reign of Menes, while others note the establishment of worship and temple rituals, which indicates the wise management of the country.

Historians believe that Menes passed away in the sixty-third year of his reign. The culprit in the death of this ruler is believed to have been a hippopotamus. The enraged animal inflicted fatal injuries on Menes.

Choir Akha

The history of the pharaohs of Egypt would be incomplete without mentioning this glorious ruler. Modern Egyptologists believe that it was Hor Akha who united Upper and Lower Egypt and also founded Memphis. There is a version that he was the son of Menes. This pharaoh ascended the throne in 3118, 3110 or 3007 BC. e.

During his reign, ancient Egyptian chronicles began. Each year received a special name based on the most striking event that occurred. Thus, one of the years of the reign of Hor Akha is called as follows: “defeat and capture of Nubia.” However, wars were not always fought. In general, the period of reign of this son of the Sun god is characterized as peaceful and calm.

The Abydos tomb of Pharaoh Hor Akha is the largest in the northwestern group of similar structures. However, the most pretentious is the Northern Tomb, which is located in Saqqara. Items with the name Hor Akha carved into it were also found. Most of them are wooden labels and clay seals found on vessels. Some ivory pieces were carved with the name Bener-Ib ("sweet at heart"). Perhaps these artifacts brought to us the memory of the pharaoh's wife.

Jer

This son of the Sun God belongs to the 1st Dynasty. It is estimated that he reigned for forty-seven years (2870-2823 BC). Not all ancient pharaohs of Egypt could boast big amount innovations during his reign. However, Jer was one of the ardent reformers. It is assumed that he was successful in the military field. Researchers found a rock inscription on the west bank of the Nile. It depicts Jer, and in front of him is a captive man kneeling.

The tomb of the pharaoh, located in Abydos, is a large rectangular pit, which is lined with bricks. The crypt was made of wood. 338 additional burial sites were found near the main burial site. It is assumed that servants and women from Jer's harem are buried in them. All of them, as required by tradition, were sacrificed after the burial of the king. Another 269 graves became the site final resting place nobles and courtiers of the pharaoh.

Dan

This pharaoh reigned around 2950 AD. His personal name is Sepati (this became known thanks to the Abydos list). Some historians believe that it was this pharaoh who first wore the double crown, symbolizing the unification of Egypt. History says that he was the leader of military campaigns on the island. From here we can conclude that Den was determined to further expand the Egyptian kingdom in this direction.

The pharaoh's mother was in a special position during the reign of her son. This is evidenced by the fact that she rests not far from Den's tomb. Such an honor still needed to be achieved. In addition, it is assumed that Hemaka, the custodian of the state treasury, was a highly respected person. On ancient Egyptian labels found, his name follows the name of the king. This is evidence of the special honor and trust of King Dan, who united Egypt.

The tombs of the pharaohs of that time were not distinguished by any special architectural delights. However, the same cannot be said about Dan's tomb. Thus, an impressive staircase leads to his tomb (it faces east, directly towards to the rising sun), and the crypt itself is decorated with red granite slabs.

Tutankhamun

The reign of this pharaoh falls approximately on 1332-1323 BC. e. He nominally began to rule the country at the age of ten. Naturally, real power belonged to more experienced people - the courtier Ey and the commander Horemheb. During this period, Egypt's external positions were strengthened due to pacification within the country. During the reign of Tutankhamun, construction was intensified, as well as the restoration of the sanctuaries of the gods, neglected and destroyed during the reign of the previous pharaoh - Akhenaten.

As it was established during anatomical studies of the mummy, Tutankhamun did not even live to be twenty years old. There are two versions of his death: the fatal consequences of some illness or complications after a fall from the chariot. His tomb was found in the notorious Valley of the Kings near Thebes. It was practically not plundered by ancient Egyptian marauders. During archaeological excavations, a great variety of precious jewelry, clothing, and works of art were found. Truly unique finds were the box, seats and gilded chariot.

It is noteworthy that the aforementioned successors of the king - Ey and Horemheb - tried in every possible way to consign his name to oblivion, classifying Tutankhamun among the heretics.

Ramesses I

This pharaoh is believed to have reigned from 1292 to 1290 BC. Historians identify him with the temporary worker of Horemheb - the powerful military leader and supreme dignitary of Paramessu. The honorary position he held sounded like this: “the manager of all the horses of Egypt, the commandant of the fortresses, the caretaker of the Nile entrance, the envoy of the pharaoh, the charioteer of His Majesty, the royal clerk, the commander, the general priest of the Gods of the Two Lands.” It is assumed that Pharaoh Ramses I (Ramesses) is the successor of Horemheb himself. The image of his magnificent ascension to the throne is preserved on the pylon.

According to Egyptologists, the reign of Ramses I is not distinguished by either duration or significant events. He is most often mentioned in connection with the fact that the pharaohs of Egypt Seti I and Ramesses II were his direct descendants (son and grandson, respectively).

Cleopatra

This famous queen is a representative of the Macedonian. Her feelings for the Roman commander were truly dramatic. Cleopatra's reign is infamous due to the Roman conquest of Egypt. The obstinate queen was so disgusted by the thought of being a captive (of the first Roman emperor) that she chose to commit suicide. Cleopatra is the most popular ancient character in literary works and films. Her reign took place in co-reign with her brothers, and after that with Mark Antony, her legal husband.

Cleopatra is considered the last independent pharaoh in Ancient Egypt before the Roman conquest of the country. She is often mistakenly called the last pharaoh, but this is not so. A love affair with Caesar brought her a son, and with Mark Antony a daughter and two sons.

The pharaohs of Egypt are most fully described in the works of Plutarch, Appian, Suetonius, Flavius ​​and Cassius. Cleopatra, naturally, also did not go unnoticed. In many sources she is described as a depraved woman of extraordinary beauty. For a night with Cleopatra, many were ready to pay with their own lives. However, this ruler was smart and courageous enough to pose a threat to the Romans.

Conclusion

The pharaohs of Egypt (the names and biographies of some of them are presented in the article) contributed to the formation of a powerful state that lasted more than twenty-seven centuries. Elevating and improving this ancient kingdom The fertile waters of the Nile contributed greatly. The annual floods perfectly fertilized the soil and contributed to the ripening of a rich grain harvest. Due to the abundance of food, there was a significant increase in population. The concentration of human resources, in turn, favored the creation and maintenance of irrigation canals, the formation of a large army, and the development of trade relations. In addition, mining, field geodesy and construction technologies were gradually mastered.

Society was controlled by the administrative elite, which was formed by priests and clerks. At the head, of course, was the pharaoh. The deification of the bureaucratic apparatus contributed to prosperity and order.

Today we can say with confidence that Ancient Egypt became the source of the great heritage of world civilization.