Night and day butterflies. Butterfly Day Butterflies are day and night

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NIGHT BUTTERFLIES, a group of families of the order of butterflies, or lepidoptera (Lepidoptera), the second largest number of species in the class of insects. Most, as the name suggests, are crepuscular or nocturnal. In addition, night butterflies differ from day butterflies in their structural features. Their body is thicker, and the color of the wings is usually dull, relatively monochromatic. The antennae (antennae) are most often feathery or filamentous, while in daytime butterflies their ends are club-shaped, which is why the lepidoptera of this group are also called club-whiskers, and the moths of the night are called heteroptera.

Life cycle.

Night butterflies lay eggs singly or in groups. Females can “shoot” them on the fly, introduce them into plant tissue, or carefully place them on pre-selected objects. The eggs hatch into worm-like larvae - caterpillars - with a clearly distinct hard head, a less prominent chest, bearing three pairs of true jointed legs with a terminal claw each, and an abdomen, on which there are usually five pairs of fleshy false legs, the last one at the very end of the body. False legs All butterflies end in several hook-shaped bristles. After several molts, the caterpillars turn into pupae, which in most moths are enclosed in a silk cocoon woven by the larva. Silk is produced by large specialized salivary glands. They secrete rich in protein a liquid that solidifies into a fiber when exposed to air. This fiber is used for weaving a cocoon, lining an underground chamber dug by a caterpillar before pupation, building shelters, and also for special methods of protection from enemies. Inside the pupa of evolutionarily advanced taxa, the appendages of the developing adult (imago) are tightly pressed to the body and cannot move. After a certain period of time, depending on the type and external conditions, an adult butterfly emerges from the pupa.

Structure.

The adults of most moths are very similar in appearance. Their body consists of three sections - head, chest and abdomen. The rather small head bears a pair of compound (compounded) eyes and a pair of clearly visible antennae. Most species have two pairs of wings on their chest. The entire body is densely covered with hairs and scales.

Oral apparatus.

The proboscis of butterflies, which folds into a flat spiral, is considered the most specialized oral apparatus in the class of insects. When not in use, it is usually hidden under thick scales. The expanded proboscis is well adapted for sucking up liquid food and its base opens directly into the pharynx. Non-feeding adults with rudiments of the oral apparatus are rare among butterflies. The most primitive representatives of this order in adulthood are armed with gnawing jaws, which are also characteristic of caterpillars of other groups of insects.

Wings.

Typical butterflies have two pairs of well-developed wings, densely covered with hairs and scales derived from them. However, the structure of the wings varies greatly: they can be almost completely absent (due to evolutionary degeneration), represent wide planes or narrow, almost linear structures. Accordingly, the ability of different butterflies to fly varies. In a number of forms, for example, some wavefish, the wings are reduced only in females, while males remain good flyers. Species with both winged and wingless females are known. On the other hand, there are species in which the wings are apparently normally developed, but are non-functional as flight appendages; an example of this is the one who gives commercial silk silkworm: Its males and females are winged but cannot fly. Probably best aircraft developed in the hawk moth family. Their rather narrow wings beat with such frequency that the butterflies not only develop high speeds, but are also capable, like hummingbirds, of hovering in the air and even flying backwards.

In a number of moths, for example some hawkmoths and all glass moths, hairs and scales on the plane of the wings are practically absent, but this does not affect the ability to fly. The wings of these species are narrow, and they do not require additional mechanical support created by the scaly cover. In other cases, the system of veins in the wings is significantly reduced, and the supporting function is performed by scales located in a special way on their surface. Some very small butterflies have wings so narrow that they probably could not provide lift if not for the long hairs bordering them. They are located so densely that they increase the area of ​​bearing surfaces in contact with air.

The most clear structural difference between nocturnal butterflies and diurnal ones is associated with the mechanisms of coupling of the front and hind wings, i.e. synchronizing their movements in flight. Moths have two of these mechanisms. One of them is called bridle. The frenulum is a subulate-shaped outgrowth extending from the underside leading edge hind wing at its base. It is inserted into the so-called retinaculum on the forewing, which in males usually resembles a pocket and is located below at the anterior edge of the wing on the costal vein, and in females it looks like a tuft of setae or stiff hairs at the base of the medial vein. The second mechanism is provided by a narrow blade clinging to the rear wing on the inner edge of the front wing at its base. This structure, called yugum, is known only in a very few of the more primitive forms. In diurnal butterflies, traction is due to a growth on the hind wings that does not correspond to the frenulum. However, there are several known exceptions. One primitive day butterfly retains the frenulum, and some nocturnal butterflies have wings linked together, like day butterflies.

Sensory organs.

There are special sensory structures on various parts of the body of moths.

Olfactory organs.

These organs, located on the antennae of most moths, are pineal or wedge-shaped projections with thin cuticular walls. They are innervated by a group of special sensory cells located in the deeper layers of the cuticle and connected to the branches of the sensory nerves. The sense of smell of many moths appears to be very subtle: it is assumed that it is thanks to it that they find representatives of the opposite sex and sources of food.

Organs of hearing.

Some moths have tympanic hearing organs, although all diurnal moths lack them. These mechanoreceptors are located in the lateral recesses on the metathorax or the first segments of the abdomen. The recesses are covered with a thin cuticular membrane, under which there is a tracheal cavity. Sound waves propagating in the air cause the membrane to vibrate. This stimulates the excitation of special sensory cells, which is transmitted to the branches of the sensory nerves.

Organs of vision.

The main organs of vision of moths are two large compound eyes, occupying almost the entire upper part of the head. Such eyes, characteristic of most insects, consist of many identical elements independent of each other - ommatidia. Each of them is a simple eye with a lens, a light-sensitive retina and innervation. The hexagonal lenses of several thousand ommatidia of one compound eye of moths form its convex multifaceted surface. For detailed description the structure and operation of such organs of vision would require too much space here, and it is important to note only one thing: each ommatidia, independently of the others, perceives part of the overall image, which ultimately turns out to be mosaic. Judging by the behavior of moths, their visual acuity, like that of other insects, is good at close range, but they most likely see distant objects rather blurry. However, thanks to the independent work of many ommatidia, the movements of objects in their field of vision are probably perceived even “on an enlarged scale,” since they immediately excite hundreds or even thousands of receptor nerve cells. Consequently, the conclusion suggests itself that eyes of this type are designed primarily for recording movements.

Pigmentation.

Like daytime butterflies, the coloration of night butterflies is dual in nature - structural and pigmentary. Pigments of various chemical compositions are formed in scales that densely cover the body of the insect. These substances absorb rays of a certain wavelength and reflect others, which represent the part of the solar spectrum that we see when looking at a butterfly. Structural coloring is the result of refraction and interference of light rays and is not associated with the presence of pigments. The layered structure of the wing scales and membranes, as well as the presence of longitudinal ridges and grooves on the scales, lead to the deviation and interaction of the “white” sun rays in such a way that certain of their spectral components are enhanced and perceived by the observer as colors. In moths, the coloring in nature is mainly pigmentary.

Defense mechanisms.

Varied defense mechanisms found in caterpillars, pupae and adults of moths.

Shelters.

Caterpillars from several families of moths, quite distant from each other, apparently independently acquired similar protective types behavior. A good example- bagworms and case-carriers. In the bagworm family, the caterpillars build silken houses with pieces of debris and leaves attached to the outside almost immediately after hatching. The structure of the shelter is such that only the front part of the larva protrudes from it, which, if disturbed, is completely retracted inside. The size of the house increases as the caterpillar grows, until it finally grows and pupates inside this “bag” of its own, reaching a length of 2.5–5 cm. After a few weeks, a winged male emerges from there, and the females of some genera remain in the house , and mating occurs with the help of a highly specialized copulatory organ, which the male inserts there. After fertilization, the female lays eggs in her sac and either dies next to them, never coming out, or, in some species, she crawls out to immediately fall to the ground and die.

Caseworm caterpillars build similar portable houses from pieces of leaves, discarded larval integuments and similar materials, holding them together with the secretion of the salivary glands and their excrement.

Hairs, glands and other larval structures.

Protective devices of pupae.

Protective painting.

Caterpillars and adults of moths widely use protective (cryptic) and warning (repellent) coloration. The latter attracts the attention of predators and is accordingly demonstrated by species that possess some kind of powerful defense. For example, many caterpillars are brightly colored, have an unpleasant taste caused by the secretion of special glands, or are covered with stinging hairs. The cryptic coloration, which allows them to blend into the background, is simply fantastically developed in the larvae of some species. If the caterpillar finds food on coniferous tree, it may be practically no different in color and shape from the needles or scales surrounding it. In other species, the larvae not only resemble small twigs in their appearance, but also rise on the branches at the moment of danger so as to further emphasize this similarity. This mechanism is characteristic, for example, of moths and some ribbon moths.

The cryptic coloration of moth imagoes can be illustrated huge number examples. Resting individuals of some species from families distant from each other resemble heaps of bird droppings, while others blend perfectly with the granite rocks, bark, leaves or flowers on which they usually sit. Ribbon flies display bright warning colors on their hind wings in flight, but are almost indistinguishable at rest, since the cryptic pattern of the fore wings folded on the back perfectly camouflages the insect on stones or tree trunks. The wings of many moths bear spots that look a lot like wide-open eyes. large predators. This scares away enemies who try not to risk finding out the true size of the animal “looking” at them.

Industrial melanism

is one of the most interesting phenomena that has been attracting the attention of biologists to moths for many years. In populations, against the background of normally colored insects, there is often a small percentage of darker individuals (melanists). The formation of pigments in them is different from others, due to a gene mutation, i.e. is inherited. It has been noted that over the last century, the proportion of melanized forms in the populations of some species of moths has increased significantly, and this happened in industrial areas, mainly in Europe. Often, dark butterflies almost completely replace light ones, which were previously considered the species norm. Obviously, we are talking about some kind of rapidly developing evolutionary process.

A study of species with industrial melanism showed the following. The probability of survival of “normal” ones, i.e. light forms in rural areas are higher than among melanists, since it is the normal color that is cryptic in this type of environment. True, dark butterflies have a physiological advantage - they survive in conditions of nutritional deficiency (lack of some nutritional components), which is lethal for their light-colored counterparts, but, obviously, insects are faced with the danger of attack by predators more often than with an inadequate diet, so melanists do not only they do not displace normal individuals, but also remain in the minority. In industrial areas, many objects on which butterflies usually land are covered with soot, and dark coloring here camouflages better from enemies than normal light coloring. In addition, in conditions where food plants suffer from pollution, the reduced requirements of melanists for food quality become of particular importance. As a result, they displace normal butterflies in an industrial environment, and if the danger of nutritional deficiency becomes more important than attacks by predators, they sharply increase their presence in rural areas. Thus, the fundamental position of modern evolutionary theory is confirmed: genes that give an organism some advantage spread throughout the population if they do not simultaneously lead to the appearance of traits that reduce fitness. It is interesting to note that melanistic coloration, which has spread among butterflies in industrial and neighboring rural areas, is inherited as a dominant trait. The phenomenon of industrial melanism still requires further study. Being an excellent example of an evolutionary process occurring very quickly before our eyes, it makes it possible to better understand some of its fundamental mechanisms.

Spreading.

Moths are found on all continents except Antarctica and on most oceanic islands. Obviously, the ability of adults to fly has become the most important factor explaining the wide distribution of most species. However, some taxa have different main methods of dispersal. Thus, at high altitudes and in places very remote from the expected hatching areas, young caterpillars were caught traveling through the air on the silk threads they secreted. The spread of species is also facilitated by the attachment of eggs to logs and other objects, which are then transported, for example, by flood waters or wind. Many moths have symbiotic relationships with other species, and their habitats practically coincide with the distribution area of ​​​​the “hosts”. An example is the yucca moth, which breeds in yucca flowers.

Economic importance of moths.

Benefit.

Because the oral apparatus The vast majority of adult moths have a soft proboscis that is not capable of piercing animals and plant tissue, the adults of these insects rarely cause harm to humans. In many cases, they feed on flower nectar, bringing undeniable benefits as pollinators of important crops.

An example of such benefit and at the same time symbiotic interdependence is the relationship of the yucca moth with yucca plants. The flower of the latter is designed in such a way that fertilization of the ovules and the development of seeds from them is impossible without the help of a pollinator. This assistance is provided by the female yucca moth. Having collected pollen from several flowers, she makes a ball out of it, which she carefully places on the stigma of the pistil, thereby ensuring the fertilization of the ovules in the ovary, where she lays her eggs. Developing yucca seeds are the only food for its larvae, which, however, eat only a small percentage of them. As a result, the complex behavior of the adults of these moths in an unusual way ensures the reproduction of very specific plants. Several species of yucca moths are known, each of which is symbiotically associated with one or more species of yucca.

Harm.

Caterpillars of moths are very voracious. They can damage leaves, stems and roots of plants, eat stored food products, and spoil various fibers and other materials. The larvae of many species of moths cause significant damage to agriculture.

The harm of keratophagous moths is well known to everyone. They lay eggs on wool and fur, which their larvae feed on. The fibers of these materials are also used by some species to build pupal cocoons.

Malicious pests are grain moth, or barley moth, Indian flour moth and mill moth, which destroy grain in warehouses. All three species are cosmopolitan, i.e. They are distributed almost all over the world, and to reduce the damage they cause, it is necessary to constantly treat with insecticides.

Probably the most noticeable type of damage caused by caterpillars to plants is defoliation, i.e. destruction of foliage. Hungry butterfly larvae can literally strip fields, vegetable gardens and even forests.

Classification.

The most common classification scheme for the order Lepidoptera divides it into two suborders - Palaeolepidoptera and Neolepidoptera. Their representatives differ from each other in many characteristics, including larval structures, oral apparatus, wing venation and the structure of the reproductive system. Palaeolepidoptera includes few species, but they are represented by a wide evolutionary spectrum of mostly very small forms with miner caterpillars, while the suborder Neolepidoptera unites the vast majority of modern butterflies. In total, the Lepidoptera order includes more than 100 families, some of them (only for moths) are listed below.

Glassworts (Sesiidae): slender forms with transparent wings without scales; resemble bees in appearance; fly during the day.

Moths (Pyralidae): small, varied in shape butterflies; the wings at rest are folded into a triangle: many species are pests.

Fingerwings (Pterophoridae): small forms with longitudinally dissected wings, the edges of which bear a fringe of scales.

True moths (Tineidae): very small moths with a fringe of scales along the edges of their wings.

Notched moths (Gelechiidae): small, often brightly colored moths; many, such as grain moths (barley moths), are malicious pests.

Hawk Moths (Sphingidae): Typically large species that resemble hummingbirds in appearance.

Bagworms (Psychidae): males are winged, small, darkly colored; wingless females and caterpillars live in silk bags.

Peacock-eyes (Saturniidae): very large, wide-winged butterflies with a massive body; many have “eye” spots on their wings.

Moths (Geometridae): small, slender, broad-winged forms whose caterpillars “walk”, bending in a loop in a vertical plane.

Leaf rollers (Tortricidae): small and medium-sized species; folded wings often resemble a bell in outline; many - dangerous pests, for example, the spruce budworm and the codling moth.

Cocoon moths (Lasiocampidae): medium-sized hairy butterflies with a massive body; caterpillars are dangerous pests.

Ursa Moths (Arctiidae): Medium-sized, hairy butterflies with brightly colored wings.

Cutworms (Noctuidae): forms with inconspicuous gray or brown wings and filamentous antennae.

Waterworts (Lymantriidae): males with gray or brown wings and feathery antennae; females are sometimes wingless; caterpillars are brightly colored.

1.2.5 Night and day butterflies

Many adult butterflies are active during the day, and at night they rest and sleep. These are daytime butterflies. More than once we admired blueberries, lemongrass, mourning grass, urticaria, peacock's eye, hawk moths and many other beauties, the names of which are unknown to us. Another large group of butterflies, called nocturnal, flies at dusk and at night, and hides in secluded places during the day. Among them are strong, nimble, fluffy, shaggy, average size or small creatures that unexpectedly fly into the light in the dark, noisily ram the light bulbs, bounce off them, do not fly away, but curl and beat against any surface, feverishly vibrating their wings at breakneck speed. When you try to catch them, they escape, leaving a myriad of scales in the form of gray dust on your hands. These are different scoops. Night butterflies include: moths, corydalis, cocoon moths, cutworms, hawkmoths, moths, bear moths and others.

1.2.6 Protection from predators

Methods of protection from predators are very diverse. A number of species have a foul odor and unpleasant taste, or are poisonous, all of which makes them inedible. Having tried such a butterfly once, predators will avoid this species in the future.

Poisonous and inedible species often have warning bright colors. Butterflies, deprived of such means of protection, often mimic inedible species, imitating not only the color, but also the shape of the wings. This type Mimicry is most developed in Lepidoptera, and is called “Batesian”.

Some butterflies imitate wasps and bumblebees, for example, glass moths, bumblebee hawkmoth, and scabious bumblebee. This similarity is achieved due to the coloring, body contours and structure of the wings - they are almost scaleless and transparent, the hind wings are shorter than the front ones, and the scales on them are concentrated on the veins.

Many species have a protective coloring, disguised as dry leaves, twigs, and pieces of bark. For example, the silver hole resembles a broken twig, the oakleaf cocoon moth resembles a dry birch leaf.

Unlike butterflies that are active during daylight hours, species that are active at dusk or at night have a different protective coloration. The upper side of their forewings is colored in the colors of the substrate on which they sit at rest. At the same time, their front wings fold along the back like a flat triangle, covering the lower wings and abdomen.

One type of repellent coloration is the “eyes” on the wings. They are located on the front or hind wings and imitate the eyes of vertebrates. In a calm state, butterflies with this coloration usually sit with their wings folded, and when disturbed, they spread their front wings and display frightening, brightly colored lower wings. In some species, large and very bright dark eyes with a white outline, similar to the eyes of an owl, are clearly visible.

Moths for protection against bats They have densely hairy bodies. The hairs help absorb and disperse ultrasonic signals from bats, thereby masking the moth's location. Many butterflies freeze when they detect a bat's sonar signal. Ursa bears are capable of generating a series of clicks, which, according to some researchers, also prevent their detection.

2. Peculiarities of biology of individual representatives of this family in the Urals

2.1 Thistle

Thistle, or Thistle, is a diurnal butterfly from the nymphalidae family.

Description. The color above is light brick red with black spots forming a transverse band in the middle of the forewing, and white spots at the end of the forewings; the underside of the hind wings has dark and light streaks and 4-5 ocular spots (yellow with a blue core) in front of the edge. Spreading. It is more widespread than any other butterfly, as it is found in all parts of the world, with the exception of South America; in northern Europe it reaches Iceland. The caterpillar lives on thistles and artichokes. Fertilized females overwinter. Habitats and lifestyle. Butterflies are found everywhere where thistles and nettles grow; in the mountains they reach a height of 2000 m, but they still give preference to dry, sunny areas of the area - steppes, fields and meadows, avoiding dark forests. The burdock is a famous traveler that flies to Europe from North Africa in the spring, and in the fall burdocks gather in flocks and fly south: to Iran, India, and some to Africa.

2.2 Urticaria

The urticaria, also known as the chocolate butterfly, is a diurnal butterfly from the nymphalid family.

In early spring the hives are already flying. They overwinter as adult butterflies. And as soon as the sun warms up, they crawl out of various cracks and from under the bark. They fly a little, lay eggs and die. Caterpillars usually live on nettles.

Description. The Nettle butterfly is a commonly encountered daytime butterfly. Its color is brick red with black spots and a black border. This black border is decorated with bright blue spots. The length of its wing is 4-5 centimeters. The urticaria caterpillar is usually 5 centimeters long, the color is bright green, the underside of the caterpillar's abdomen is yellow and covered with black stripes. Its black hairy caterpillar feeds on nettle leaves, which grow in abundance in gardens, near houses, and in weedy places; it is because of the caterpillar’s ​​addiction to this grass that the butterfly got its name “nettle.” The urticaria lays eggs on the underside of the leaf; the color of the eggs is yellow. The body length of the urticaria is usually up to 5-10 millimeters. The pupa belongs to the covered species. The mobility of the pupa is determined by the movements of its abdomen. The interesting thing is that it is almost impossible to distinguish the relatives of urticaria from each other.

Spreading. Today it can be found everywhere in Europe. The urticaria family includes more than five hundred species of butterflies and about 20 genera. The hives butterfly is a frequent visitor to almost all countries of the world.

Information about the work “Representatives of the class Insects - as objects of scientific and educational tourist routes. Order Lepidoptera, or Butterflies"

The two groups of Lepidoptera - the diurnal moths (Rhopalocera) and the nocturnal moths (Heterocera) - are so different in their adaptations to flowers that the two subclasses are usually considered separately. However, the main difference between them is not taxonomic, but ethological. The former are usually represented by daytime butterflies landing on a flower, and the latter by crepuscular or nocturnal butterflies, soaring. However, these factors can be combined in a different way: there are soaring daytime butterflies, and vice versa. Likewise, there are intermediate types of flowers pollinated by day and night butterflies. Even if typical behavior and corresponding flower types predominate quantitatively, intermediate types make the boundaries between individual types more or less blurred.
All butterflies are characterized by some common features. These insects do not feed their offspring - all the food they collect covers their own needs. True, some of them do not eat at all. In this case they have a rudimentary digestive tract. It is likely that even for those that can eat, food consumption is not always necessary. Consequently, many diurnal and nocturnal butterflies play a rather dubious role in pollination, but nevertheless their existence depends on the plants on which their larvae feed, sometimes until their development into the adult stage. Primitive lepidoptera still have hard mouthparts designed for chewing, and their food is varied. The fact that Micropterygidae eat pollen from Caltha and Ranunculus species indicates the primacy of pollen attraction. In more developed species, the mouth parts are represented by long thin proboscis, and these species consume exclusively liquid food (nectar and water). It is also known that even higher Lepidoptera sometimes feed on bloody secretions, blood, feces and urine, but they do not exhibit a tendency towards “sapromyophily” in pollination. Some butterflies meet their (small) nitrogen needs from nectar amino acids (cf. p. 119). According to Gilbert (1972), Heliconius feeds on the pollen contents that flow out. They probably need this food to reproduce. Since these butterflies have ordinary proboscis rather than gnawing mouthparts, the use of pollen in this case is secondary.
Factors such as proboscis length, proboscis guides and rough surfaces to avoid, and the force required to insert and then remove from this vital organ of the flower. In Asclepiadaceae, weak pollinators face difficulties in proboscis rearing, as evidenced by the extensive literature, especially on Araujoa (the tormentor plant).
Butterflies are diurnal animals, so the flowers they pollinate have some characteristic features that are more or less easily explained (Table 6).
Ile (1928) showed that different butterflies have innate preferences for different flowers. He also showed constancy to color variations in the species Lan-tana, Aster, etc. This, obviously, can influence speciation (see Levin, 1972a). Color vision, at least in some species, probably determines the discrimination of pure red. It is not known what significance nectar indicators have for butterflies, or whether they exist for other groups of pollinators of the same flower.
Butterflies land on a flower, usually placing themselves on the edge of the flower's funnel. The presence of chemoreceptors on the legs should be kept in mind, although their ecological significance is unknown. It is possible that butterflies prefer to suck nectar from narrow tubes, most often from flowers in the inflorescences of Asteraceae.
Just like bees, butterflies are able to use other types of flowers, including primitive ones. They may even use umbelliferous inflorescences, but typical butterfly-pollinated flowers are narrow tubes with flat edges, such as those of Lantana or Buddleia. These two genera are characterized by the fact that their flowers are collected in dense clusters, characteristic of this class of flowers. This provides both a visual effect and minimal movement. Penetration into a deep tube is a temporary, i.e. energy-dependent, process.
In general, Lepidoptera are not very well adapted to carrying pollen. Their scaly surface cannot retain pollen, much less pollinia. The best body parts for pleo-rotribic transfer are the proboscis, the surface of the head and the legs. Typically, in flowers with a melittophilic structure—zygomorphy—mechanisms develop that cause the organs to deviate from the median location. In orchids, this leads to lateral displacement of flower parts (van der Pijl and Dodson, 1966; Stoutamire, 1978). According to some data (Kislev et al., 1972), the number of pollen grains adhered to the proboscis of hawk moths ranges from 2 thousand to more than 5 thousand. Enlarged protrusions reduce the effectiveness of adhesion.
The group of nocturnal butterflies is ecologically and ethologically different from diurnal ones. Moths do not hover (they can glide), but sit on a flower, and they can collect pollen with their legs. This plays a role in speciation. Some moths are also able to fly during the day, for example Plusia in the off-season. Hawkmoths, as well as day-flying species, usually hover while foraging for nectar and thus collect pollen only with their proboscis and head. They are characterized by intense metabolism, especially during vaping. At this time they need a large amount of food; hence they are quite important pollinators. Some of them expand their activity so much that they pollinate flowers usually pollinated by diurnal butterflies, even in Bougainvillea. These pollinators include Macroglossa, a classic subject in Knoll's experiments, which established their sensitivity to various colors and red blindness. Representatives of Pieridae perceive ultraviolet light(Eisner et al., 1969).
Soaring explains some of the differences between flowers pollinated by night and day butterflies (Table 6), especially when there is no suitable landing site (the lip is missing or bent back). In some flowers, the landing site acquires a new function as a visual attractant (splits to form a narrow fringe), or distributes a scent, or has indicators for the introduction of the proboscis.
The large distance between the reproductive organs and nectar in flowers pollinated by butterflies is not only negative, excluding bees as pollinators, but also has positive value, ensuring proper use and placement of the proboscis. In the family Capparidaceae, whose ancestors had separate-petalled (and separate-sepalized) flowers, a tube cannot form; on the contrary, the distance between the source of nectar, on the one hand, and the pollen and stigma, on the other, is established in the flower by elongation of the filaments and movement of the ovule by apex of the gynophore or androgynophore.
Olfactory attraction can play a much greater role in moth-pollinated flowers than in any other, so the air of tropical nights is usually filled with the amazing fragrance of flowering plants. Some of them are well known in non-tropical gardens or greenhouses (Cape jasmine, tuberoses, lilies, Pseudodatura, etc.). Cestrum nocturnum has such a strong odor that it should not be planted near the house (Overland, 1960). The strict periodicity in the formation of odorous substances is truly remarkable. Flowers that fill the air with fragrance at night may be completely scentless during the day (Pseudodatura, night-blooming cacti).
One of the most interesting aspects of the night-blooming syndrome was described by Bhaskar and Razi (1974) in some nocturnal species of Impatiens. Their pollen germinates better at night and remains viable only for a few hours after sunset. This may be of great importance in arid zones.
In phalenophilous flowers, periodicity is observed not only in the formation of aromatic substances; flowering in general also shows a strong correlation with nocturnal insect visits. If flowering continues for more than one night, the flower closes during the day (sometimes imitating wilting), so that it loses both visual and olfactory attraction. It is worth mentioning the very rapid opening of some night flowers: Calonyction bona pox opens so quickly that it can be seen with the naked eye.
Free-flying hawkmoths (Sphingidae) are more characteristic of the butterfly pollination syndrome than cutworms (Noctuidae), which usually sit on or cling to a flower. Hawkmoths are sensitive to strong winds, which makes it impossible for them to land on a flower. Aizikovich and Galil (Eisikowitch and Galil, 1971; see also Heywood, 1973) showed that pollination in the coastal plant Pancratium maritimum, which is produced by hawk moths, depends on the influence of strong sea winds (about 3 m/s).
The smells of phalenophilous flowers are very similar to each other for humans, so there is a lot of uncertainty in the literature regarding their specificity. The visits of moths are not specific, and the bribes are mixed. Brantjes's experiments (1973) not only demonstrated the ability of many species to distinguish the odors of different night flowers, but also revealed specific differences, especially in the breadth of the perceived spectrum of odors. This can serve as the basis for their classification.
Knoll (1923) demonstrated that moths are able to find hidden flowers, apparently guided by smell; however, the importance of olfactory perception for orientation remains unclear in many species. Schremmer (1941) found that scent orientation is very important for newly hatched Plusia (Autographa) gamma, which, incidentally, are not nocturnal. Later, this may develop into a constancy to one smell, as well as to color. Whether such a connection with smell is secondary is a purely semantic question.
When olfactory attraction was studied in more detail (Brantjes, 1973), it turned out that this process can be divided into various stages: long-range orientation, near orientation, the decision to visit the flower, and finally orientation in the flower. In the hawkmoths used in these experiments, the presence of the odor stimulated a kind of “warm-up” (vibration of the thorax muscles), and if they were already in flight, the flight pattern changed from random to a special search flight, which led to a flower and a decision to visit it . When the source of the smell is found, the proboscis is extended and inserted into the flower. The visual signal is less involved in the chain of reactions in some species than in others, and may even predominate, for example, in Macroglossa (Knoll, 1923).
The question of visual attraction in nocturnal pollinators is extremely difficult. The fact that moths distinguish colors in the dark does not indicate the usefulness of the white color that predominates in these flowers, nor does it indicate the presence of visual attraction in pale-colored flowers of the Hesperis tristis type. A rather unusual example is described by Vogel and Muller-Doblies (1975). The green petals of Narcissus viridiflorus are not only narrow, but also have a very strong scent.
Among the animals that visit flowers, the most long proboscis found in moths, especially the famous Xanthopan morgani f. praedicta, which pollinates Angraecum sesquipedale under natural conditions (spur length 25 - 30 cm).
A good example of an "average" moth-pollinated flower is Lonicera periclymenum. The absence of a landing site makes it extremely difficult for bumblebees to work in this flower, even if these large bees can get to the nectar, and their “stunts” that they perform in and around each flower are very funny and clearly demonstrate the negative function of the adaptation syndrome. It is possible that the original type of bazitonic orchid was pollinated by bees; later, some genera began to be pollinated by Lepidoptera. A good example of a flower pollinated by day butterflies is the brightly colored Anacamptis pyramidalis; the faintly colored Gymnadenia soporea is visited by both nocturnal and diurnal butterflies, while the greenish-yellow Platanthera is visited mainly by nocturnal and crepuscular moths. All these flowers have spurs so long and narrow that the bees can hardly get anything from these flowers.
Most characteristic feature moths are nocturnal, and the syndrome of the flowers they pollinate is now obvious, considering what has already been said. As in other groups, small primitive moths are an exception. Some of them are diurnal and their behavior is similar to diurnal butterflies. Others are quite dystropic.
Nocturnal lifestyle, long proboscis and soaring - three character traits moths in connection with pollination. However, all these features are not unique to moths. Nocturnal bees are known; they compete with primitive moths with short proboscis. Two other characters are found in various insects and are characteristic of the most extreme species of flower flies (Bombiliidae, Nemestrenidae) and Nemognathus (flower beetle). These insects (most of which, in any case, are diurnal) pollinate flowers of a similar type and can compete with the more highly developed moths.
In addition, diurnal hawk moths compete especially strongly with pollinating birds (hovering hummingbirds), and therefore the syndromes of lepidopteran- and bird-pollinated flowers are extremely simple: bright colors and large amounts of nectar. Porsch (1924) showed that this similarity extends so far that birds (not always much larger1, but much stronger) recognize daytime hawk moths as competitors and drive them away. However, in pollination ecology one can always find Alternative option, and therefore one should not be surprised that according to some data in South America moths (Castnia eudesmia) drive birds away from the plant (Puya al-pestris) on which they feed (Gourlay, 1950).
1 Often a person who has not seen hummingbirds confuses them with large hawk moths, such as Acherontia.
Apparently, the main differences between the syndromes of ornithophilous pollination and pollination by diurnal lepidoptera are the presence or absence of smell, the narrow and often convoluted tube of flowers pollinated by moths, and the mobile anthers (not fixed as in ornithophilia). In addition, the corollas do not require the same mechanical stability: the beak of birds and the proboscis of moths are extremely different. Typically, butterflies draw in nectar through a very narrow and often long tube; birds scoop it up with a very large beak. Consequently, flowers pollinated by birds have more viscous, i.e., more concentrated nectar that provides more energy. Birds are characterized by ultraviolet blindness. Apart from color, the differences between butterfly- and bird-pollinated flowers are unclear. Cdesalpinia pulcherrima (Vogel, 1954) represents an intermediate case, as it is odorless but is frequently visited by birds.
It is classified as a psychophilic plant due to the availability of space for planting in form of hard threads and is usually pollinated by large American butterflies. Cruden and Herrmann-Parker (1979) showed the primacy of psychophilia.

Many adult butterflies are active during the day, and at night they rest and sleep. This day butterflies. More than once we admired blueberries, lemongrass, mourning grass, urticaria, peacock's eye, hawk moths and many other beauties, the names of which are unknown to us. Another large group of butterflies called night , flies at dusk and at night, and hides in secluded places during the day. Among them stand out strong, nimble, fluffy, shaggy, medium-sized or small creatures, which in the dark unexpectedly fly into the light, noisily ram the light bulbs, bounce off them, do not fly away, but curl and beat against any surface, vibrating feverishly wings at breakneck speed. When you try to catch them, they escape, leaving a myriad of scales in the form of gray dust on your hands. These are different scoops. TO moths include: moths, corydalis, cocoon moths, cutworms, hawkmoths, moths, bear moths and others.

Protection from predators

Methods of protection from predators are very diverse. A number of species have a foul odor and unpleasant taste, or are poisonous, all of which makes them inedible. Having tried such a butterfly once, predators will avoid this species in the future.

Poisonous and inedible species often have warning bright colors. Butterflies, deprived of such means of protection, often mimic inedible species, imitating not only the color, but also the shape of the wings. This type of mimicry is most developed in Lepidoptera and is called “Batesian”.

Some butterflies imitate wasps and bumblebees, for example glassware , hawk moth honeysuckle bumblebee, scabiosa bumblebee . This similarity is achieved due to the coloring, body contours and structure of the wings - they are almost scaleless and transparent, the hind wings are shorter than the front ones, and the scales on them are concentrated on the veins.

Many species have a protective coloring, disguised as dry leaves, twigs, and pieces of bark. For example, silver hole resembles a broken twig, oakleaf cocoon moth looks like a dry birch leaf.

Unlike butterflies that are active during daylight hours, species that are active at dusk or at night have a different protective coloration. The upper side of their forewings is colored in the colors of the substrate on which they sit at rest. At the same time, their front wings fold along the back like a flat triangle, covering the lower wings and abdomen.

One type of repellent coloration is the “eyes” on the wings. They are located on the front or rear wings and imitate eyes vertebrates. In a calm state, butterflies with this coloration usually sit with their wings folded, and when disturbed, they spread their front wings and display frightening, brightly colored lower wings. In some species, large and very bright dark eyes with a white outline, similar to the eyes of an owl, are clearly visible.

To protect themselves from bats, moths have densely haired bodies. Hairs help absorb and disperse ultrasonic signals from bats, and thereby mask the location of the butterfly. Many butterflies freeze when they detect a bat's sonar signal. Ursa are capable of generating a series of clicks, which, according to some researchers, also prevent their detection.

Night sisters of daytime butterflies

Unnoticed among the flowers, cirrhophane suddenly flies into the sky. It looks like it was made from butter. The sun shines through its yellow wings lined with orange strokes. But this is not a day butterfly.

Epimenis is a black moth with a large red patch on the hindwing and a large white patch on the forewing.

During the day it feeds on wild grapes in the sun-dappled forests of eastern North America. It is usually mistaken for a day butterfly. But that's not true.

The front wings of the bat called the lady bear are green with yellow speckles. The hind wings are scarlet, like a matador's cloak.

One Indian bat has a real carpet on its wings - green, black, orange and white, and even with a metallic blue tint.

One moth, leading a diurnal lifestyle, is similar in appearance to a swallowtail.

The other shimmers like a rainbow.

What is the difference between day and night butterflies, between butterflies and moths? Entomologists are already tired of answering this question. Hearing him, the entomologist, depending on his character, either sighs sadly or grimaces angrily.

In principle, both diurnal superfamilies (or, according to another classification, equine) butterflies - Papilionoidea (true day butterflies) and Hesperioidea (fatheads) - have characteristic features, distinguishing them from the majority higher variegated.

But sometimes the difference is so small that scientists are quite aware of how “unscientific” this division seems.

Entomologists have decided that approximately 11 percent of lepidopteran species (a total of 165 thousand of these species) should be considered diurnal or even-winged butterflies. Others in English are called moths - “moths” or “moths”. The vast majority of them are microlepidoptera, the creatures are predominantly small and primitive (in the sense that in the course of evolution they appeared earlier than daytime butterflies). From fifty to one hundred million years ago, from this overwhelming majority a group emerged macrolepidoptera- These are daytime butterflies and several families of nocturnal ones.

Day butterflies find each other, as well as food for themselves and food plants for future offspring, using vision. To communicate with friends and enemies, they use visual signals: colors, patterns...

Some scientists believe that butterflies were driven out into the sun by their enemies - bats; in other words, bats practically created daytime butterflies.

It is unclear how reliable this assumption is, but bats certainly influenced the evolution of moths. Bats make ultrasonic squeaks. This is their “radar signal”, which allows them to accurately detect insects flying in the night. In response, moths took their own countermeasures - their bodies are usually covered with hairs that scatter the locator signal. Some have also developed ultrasound-sensitive “ears” located on the wings, chest and abdomen. Hearing the approach of a bat, moth falls like a stone to the ground. Some moths themselves produce ultrasonic squeaking and clicking noises, perhaps to confuse the radar. However, it is quite possible that these sounds warn bat: "Caution, poison." So to speak, the sound analogue of the coloring book of the inedible monarch.

Spiders also hunt for moths, spreading their webs in the path of insects that fly blindly in the darkness. But moths can literally slip out of a web, sacrificing their scales (they tear off their wings very easily). Spiders, in turn, learned to recognize by the trembling of the web who got into their web: a fly, a bee or a butterfly. In the latter case, they rush to bite the prey as quickly as possible before it gets out. Some spiders stretch webs one above the other, constructing multi-tiered silk towers. Breaking upward, the butterfly gets caught in the net again and again until all the scales fall off: the bare wings get stuck in the web.

The nocturnal lifestyle means that the moth finds food and partners primarily by smell. Spiders take advantage of this too - they release a captivating stream of fake sex pheromones into the air. Males rush to the bait and fly straight onto the threads, lubricated with specially prepared glue of special viscosity.

Having switched to a diurnal lifestyle, the butterflies escaped these dangers, but found themselves face to face with a new threat - a sharp-sighted bird that distinguishes colors perfectly. And not all of them are considered true diurnal ones: some species retain too close genetic ties with their nocturnal relatives.

The antennae are what most distinguishes a day butterfly from a night butterfly. In daytime butterflies, the antennae are thickened at the end like a club (hence the scientific name of daytime butterflies - club-whiskered). The antennae of moths can become thinner at the end or resemble saw teeth, a bird feather, a palm leaf... The main function of the antennae is to smell, and moths are famous for their sense of smell. These are the champions of instinct. Thanks to laboratory experiments, we know that male hawk moths can accurately identify almost any bouquet of odors that we can offer them. We know that the huge feathery antennae of the male peacock eye capture the female's pheromones in the most minute concentration (a thousand molecules - MOLECULES! - per cubic centimeter of air). It is known that the males of some bats can smell and track down a female from more than a mile away.

However, in the gloomy world of moths, females usually call males on their own initiative, releasing a special scent from a special gland on the abdomen. Females of different species send their chemical signals at certain hours “assigned” only to them under certain conditions in certain places. Males sit and wait for a signal, “straining” the air with their antennae. Sensing an alluring aroma, the male flies along this odorous trail, finds the female and emits his own chemical signal. Since the initiative belongs to the female, the matchmaking procedure usually does not last long and is done without unnecessary ceremony. Just like the act of mating.

The third way to distinguish daytime butterflies from nighttime ones is to take a closer look at the structure of the wings. In most moths, the front wings are connected to the hind wings using a kind of latch. In flight, it helps synchronize the movements of the wings. Daytime butterflies do not have such a device.

In addition, daytime butterflies tend to rest with their wings folded over their backs, and fly and bask in the sun with their wings spread parallel to the ground. Moths rest by folding their wings into a “house” or spreading them out. The eggs and caterpillars of moths also have their own characteristic features: the location of the pores, a special gland on the neck, tufts of hairs...

But there are plenty of exceptions to the rules. Fatheads are diurnal butterflies, but they are small and faded, their wings are folded into a house, and their antennae, if thickened, are only the slightest. But moth moths are strewn with red specks, fly during the day, and their antennae are definitely club-shaped.

One group of butterflies - let's call them day-night- combines so many almost incompatible properties that they have only recently been classified as daytime. For example, the superfamily Hedyloidea, which lives in the tropical regions of the Western Hemisphere. They are mostly small and dull colored, they have “ears” on their wings - so they seem to be nocturnal? But only some species of the family are nocturnal, while the rest are diurnal. Their antennae cannot be called club-shaped, but their eggs and caterpillars are exactly the same as those of daytime butterflies; and besides, they know how to weave silk belts, like day sailing ships.

Another family of day-night butterflies are larger tropical creatures. They fly primarily during the day, are garishly colored, and have club-shaped antennae; but their caterpillars correspond in every way to the standards of moths.

This family is not currently classified as diurnal.

Think about how many species of mammals there are in the world. Now - how many species of birds are there? Count the amphibians and reptiles. Don't forget the fish. Now add up all the results. So, there are even more species of moths and moths. In such a large group, a variety of adaptation strategies is simply guaranteed.

And indeed, there are the most interesting options.

Some moths are so small that their larvae spend the entire caterpillar stage gnawing holes in the thickness of the leaf. The tunnels of these miner caterpillars form characteristic patterns: graceful spirals and simple labyrinths.

Other caterpillars chew into tree trunks for years, sometimes up to four years in a row, sullenly chewing woody pulp and spewing a lot of odorous excrement from their burrows.

The third caterpillars live in bodies of water, feed on perennial underwater plants, build houses from their leaves and breathe underwater with feathery tracheal gills.

Still others weave silk shelters for themselves - bags that they drag around and camouflage with garbage and pine needles. Having reached adulthood, the male climbs out of the pouch. But the adult female remains sitting in her house, because even after metamorphosis she has no legs, no wings, no eyes. Essentially, this female is just a sac of eggs waiting to be found and fertilized.

The caterpillars of one Arizona bat feed on tiny oak flowers and pretend to be them themselves - yellow-green coloring, fake "pollen sacs." That same summer, the second generation of caterpillars is born - but the oak has already faded, and the new caterpillars look not like flowers, but like oak shoots. And their jaws are different - more massive and powerful, so that they can feed on leaves. Scientists once thought they were two different species. But no - it’s the same species, just in different guises.

The wingspan of the world's largest moth (it lives in South America) is one foot.

And one Madagascar hawkmoth has a proboscis that is also a foot long: after all, the nectary of the orchid that this hawkmoth pollinates is the same length.

In Asia there lives a moth that can pierce human skin with its “teeth” and suck blood.

But the nocturnal moth named Saturnia luna has no mouth at all.

The ascetic yucca plant also does not eat or drink - it only pollinates yucca flowers, collecting pollen on one plant and dumping its load on the stigma of a flower on another. At the same time, the female lays eggs in the ovary of the flower. The flower turns into a box full of seeds and eggs. The caterpillars hatch, devour some of the seeds, eat their way out, fall to the ground and pupate. Yucca prodoxide is one of those few insects that pollinate plants actively, intentionally, in order to provide food for their own offspring.

The glass hornet really resembles a caricature hornet: the wings are long, transparent, the abdomen is thick, with yellow and black stripes. The hornets buzz angrily and stick out their abdomen menacingly - just in case they get stung!

Among the moths there are also doppelgängers of bumblebees.

Some moths can hover in the air like hummingbirds.

One Venezuelan moth pretends to be a cockroach.

Due to their enormous diversity and quantity, nocturnal butterflies and moths influence the ecosystem much more strongly than diurnal ones. They are the main and most skilled pollinators of flowering and grain plants. Their caterpillars feed the whole world. We even domesticated some moths - these are silkworms, our tiny living silk plants. We proudly parade around in clothes made from their secretions.

But there is also more harm from moths and moths than from daytime ones. They devour flour and fabrics. They gnaw plants in fields and gardens. The gypsy moth denudes entire forests, devouring foliage.

In European culture, moths and moths have negative associations. Moths, like their daytime sisters, symbolize the souls of the dead, but the nocturnal visit of the soul is a rather ominous phenomenon. Moths bring bad luck. They predict troubles. They emerge from the darkness. They are gray and furry. In a suicidal impulse, they fly straight to the lamp, to the beam of a lantern, into the flame of a candle - apparently, a bright source of light creates an optical illusion and deceives the faceted eyes of a butterfly: next to the flame of a candle they see a section of impenetrable darkness - into this darkness they try to fly away .

Let's remember the death's head hawkmoth. This yellow and black moth weighs as much as a mouse. She has a skull pattern on her back. Its scientific name - Achemntia atropos - is derived from the Greek words “Acheron” (the river of suffering in the kingdom of the dead) and “Atropos” (the name of one of the three moiras - the one that cuts the thread of life). If you disturb the hawk moth, it begins to squeak. With its short pointed proboscis, it breaks through the wax walls of bee nests and steals honey. There is a hypothesis that the skull mark imitates the “face” of the queen bee, so that deceived worker bees do not attack the thief. Perhaps the same function - to mislead other insects - is performed by the squeak of a butterfly.

Hawkmoth "death's head"

In The Silence of the Lambs, a serial killer raises Death's Head Hawk Moths and shoves their pupae down the throats of his victims.

In one 15th-century manuscript, a “death's head” is drawn in the corner of a page dedicated to St. Vincent, a saint who symbolizes victory over death and eternal life.

Moths are an allegory of the sad part of the story about the resurrection of the dead: after all, before eternal life begins, death comes.

Let's give them their due. Moths are beautiful. Moths are very interesting creatures.

But daytime butterflies are still something special.

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