History of papyrus. What is papyrus for the ancient world

Papyrus is a famous plant, although it is a relative of the common reed. For more than 30 centuries, from ancient times to the Middle Ages, writing material was obtained from it.

Papyrus is a giant herb up to 5 m high, with a thick stem up to 7 cm in diameter. It has almost no leaves. The base of the stem is surrounded by leathery scales. At the top of the stem rests a large inflorescence almost a meter in diameter. Papyrus looks a bit like a palm tree. The inflorescence consists of rays that branch at the ends into another 3-5 rays, at the base of which there are spikelets 1-2 cm long. The fruit is triangular, like buckwheat.

Papyrus grows in northern Africa, along the banks of rivers and lakes, forming thickets. It has been established that it evaporates a lot of water from the reservoirs near which it grows.

IN beginning of III Millennia ago, the ancient Egyptians began making writing material from papyrus. They cut the core of fresh stems into narrow strips and laid them lengthwise and crosswise in 2 layers so as to completely cover an area. Then they squeezed, and both layers stuck together, since papyrus contains an adhesive substance. The resulting thin, elastic sheets were dried in the sun. Then they were glued into scrolls, 20-30 cm wide and 10-30 meters long.

Papyrus was the name given to both the plant, the writing material, and the manuscripts on it. The oldest papyri are about 5 thousand years old.

Egypt for a long time remained the only country in the world where papyrus was grown. It is believed that only in the 20th century. The Arabs transported papyrus to the island of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, where it took root and grows to this day. And in Egypt, the papyrus thickets disappeared, leaving only one in the Nile Delta. Today this wonderful plant adorns the parks of Egypt, Brazil and other countries with warm climates.

The ancient Egyptians considered papyrus a healing plant. Various dishes were prepared from papyrus rhizomes, and dishes were also made from it. The stems were used to make fabrics, mats, ropes and shoes. Its spectacular, graceful inflorescences were decorations for the holidays. Papyrus is depicted on the tombs of ancient Egyptian pharaohs, including the luxurious sarcophagus of Tutankhamun, who died 14 centuries BC. At all times, boats and rafts were built from papyrus. In the 70s of the 20th century, the Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl swam across Atlantic Ocean on a papyrus boat.

In order for seeds to begin to develop in a flower, pollination must occur - that is, the pollen from the stamens must land on the stigma of the pistil. If pollen is transferred on the stigma of the same flower, then this is self-pollination. But the main type of pollination of flowering plants is cross-pollination, when pollen is transferred to flowers of different individuals. With constant self-pollination, new forms do not develop...

Do you want to know what elm looks like? This tree can be found on the street, in the forest, in the garden, and in the park. There are different types elms. But a Russian will most likely see a smooth elm. It grows in the north to Lake Onega, in the east - sometimes it even goes beyond the Urals, and in the south - to the shores of the Caspian...

IN pine forests, in birch and spruce forests you can find an evergreen low shrub with dark green leathery oval leaves. Its branches rise above the ground no more than 20 cm. In May-June they are decorated with small tassels with pale pink bell-shaped flowers. In autumn, in August, they turn into dark red balls of berries. Bushes live up to 100 years. Lingonberries...

We all love sweet and juicy watermelons. In Africa, watermelons have been grown as a cultivated plant since ancient times. It was there that a sweet form of wild watermelon was discovered. Then watermelons appeared in Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Central Asia. In the 13th century The watermelon was brought to Astrakhan and it spread throughout the south of Russia. From century to century people have selected...

In the mountains of Crimea and the Caucasus, in southern Europe, you can find dogwood - a tall, up to 4-5 m shrub with several trunks. Dogwood is noticeable from afar because in the fall it is covered with dark red shiny berries, and in the spring it is showered with yellow small flowers. Dogwood is very unpretentious. It grows both on dry gravel and on sun-warmed rocks. Its roots are spreading...

Yam tubers are one of the staple foods of the inhabitants of tropical countries. Botanists call this plant Dioscorea, and the name “yam” comes from one of the African tribes. In Africa, Dioscorea roundis, or white yam, and Dioscorea cayenne, or yellow yam, are grown on the islands Pacific Ocean- edible dioscorea, in Asia - Chinese yam. All three Dioscorea look...

The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote with surprise that even clothes were made from hemp that were so similar to linen that it was difficult to distinguish whether they were linen or hemp. During the time of Herodotus, in the 5th century. BC e. on the banks Mediterranean Sea They knew nothing about hemp and it came there from France. Herodotus also wrote about the custom of the Scythians, who...

Many of us know that cedars grow in the Siberian taiga, that pine nuts are very tasty and that there are also such birds - nutcrackers. Yes, indeed, these nuts are very tasty and such birds exist, but cedars do not grow in Siberia. In Russia, cedar colloquial speech called Siberian pine. And real cedar is Lebanese cedar...

Scientists believe that there are more than 210 genera and 2,780 species of palm trees growing on Earth. They all grow in the tropics or subtropics. We live in conditions temperate climate, where palm trees do not grow. Therefore, most can name several types of palm trees: coconut, date, oilseed. Some people have read about the Seychelles palm. All palm trees are more or less similar to each other:...

Papyrus is a writing material obtained from the plant of the same name (Cyperus papyrus), which grew in the marshy areas of the Nile Delta. The stem of papyrus usually reaches 2-3 meters in height, although some of them reached 5 meters.

Nowadays, due to the changing climate, the papyrus thickets have practically disappeared, but in ancient times this plant was widely used by the Egyptians for a variety of purposes: rugs, sandals, fabrics, ropes were made from the bark, and the pulp was eaten.

In addition, rafts and boats were made from durable papyrus stems, which was especially important in a country where the main road was a river and there were no forests.

The most famous use of papyrus is, of course, to make writing material. Papyrus was made exclusively in Egypt, where plantations of the plant of the same name grew, but was exported throughout the ancient world, and was the most popular writing material among the ancient Greeks and Romans.

To make papyrus sheets, the stems were stripped of their bark and the sticky, fibrous inner pulp was cut lengthwise into thin strips about 40 cm long. The resulting strips were laid out overlapping on a flat surface. Another row of strips was laid out on them at right angles and placed under a press.

After drying, the papyrus sheet was beaten with a hammer. Upon completion of the beating, the papyrus sheet was no thicker than a sheet of modern writing paper, and it was additionally polished with a round object (a stone, a piece of hard wood).

The resulting sheets of papyrus were glued together into scrolls, and at a later time they were combined into books. The side on which the fibers ran horizontally was the front side.

Reading the scroll required certain skills. It was necessary to hold it with both hands, and the reader found himself, as it were, tied to the book. Having finished reading, he rolled up the scroll again, and if he needed to read the book again, he had to rewind it first.

Just as there are now paper of various types and qualities, in Egypt there were various types papyri. Very cheap papyrus was used by merchants for packaging goods, and the best and expensive varieties were intended for religious or literary works.

Quality depended on a number of factors. Where the papyrus was grown, the age of the plant, the season of harvest, and most importantly, the quality of the pulp used in production - all these factors influenced the quality of the finished product.

In the early 20th century, as Ancient Egypt became fashionable in the United States and Europe, scientists began to explore how papyrus was produced in ancient times. Several options were tried, based on the design described by Pliny in Natural History, but no one succeeded in creating papyrus equal in quality to the ancients.

They wrote on papyrus with a reed with the end cut off at an angle. By holding such a reed at different angles, it was possible to draw thick or thin lines. The scribe's accessories also included ink powders and a wooden palette with recesses for diluting and mixing paints.

Regular text was written in black ink, and those places that the scribe wanted to emphasize, such as the title or the beginning of a chapter, he highlighted in red. Black ink in Egypt was made from soot and sticky blood serum. To obtain red ink, blood serum was mixed with red chalk.

Religious texts were accompanied by carefully executed illustrations, exemplified by the magnificent illustrations from the Book of the Dead, especially in editions dating back to the heyday of ancient Egyptian culture in the era of the 18th dynasty. The drawings were skillfully arranged with the text or placed between separate columns.

Part of the Book of the Dead. British Museum.

The papyri that have come down to us contain not only religious texts. Business and administrative documents, fiction, and also scientific works on mathematics, astronomy and medicine make up a significant part of the known papyri.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC, the Library of Alexandria, the largest library in the ancient world, was founded. Many ancient scholars visited it and worked with the scrolls contained in it. The Greek doctors Hippocrates, called the “Father of Medicine,” and Galen admitted that they gleaned part of their knowledge from Egyptian medical papyri.

In the dry Egyptian climate, papyrus was well preserved, but under other conditions mold quickly appeared and the material was destroyed. In European conditions, the lifespan of papyrus was several decades; two-hundred-year-old papyrus was very rare.

The production of material that replaced paper for Egyptian priests and officials remained in oblivion for many centuries. This is to blame not only for the production of papyrus and the zealous guarding of the secrets of the craft, but also for climate change in the Nile Delta and environmental problems. As a result of the latter, papyrus practically became extinct in Egypt. Only in the second half of the 20th century did enthusiast Hassan Ragab become concerned about reviving this plant and exploring the possibilities of its use. It was thanks to his research to modern man The process of making papyrus is known.

The meaning of papyrus to the ancient Egyptians

Tropical, related to sedges and related to sedge, several thousand years ago formed impressive thickets on the marshy banks of the Nile in its lower reaches. Papyrus is a tall, smooth shoot topped with an “umbrella” of narrow lanceolate leaves. The inflorescence of papyrus resembles a fan consisting of many spikelets. The triangular stem of papyrus is rigid, flexible and durable.

It was used as a material for furniture, boats, and rafts. The shell was used to make ropes, baskets, and shoes. The dried roots of the plant were used as fuel. The soft part of the shoot, which was under water, was eaten. This same part was ideal for making “paper”.

Stages of making papyrus: splitting, “assembling”, drying under a press, polishing, gluing

The lower part of the stem was peeled, releasing the dense, fibrous and sticky pulp. It was split into thin plates 40-50 cm long. Modern technology involves soaking the strips for several days.

The finished plates (fillers) were laid overlapping on a flat surface covered with fabric and leather: the first layer was parallel to the edge of the table, the second layer was perpendicular. At first, the width of the finished sheet was no more than 15 cm, but later the Egyptians learned to make fairly wide sheets. During the laying process, the material was wetted with water from the Nile.

The sheets were then placed under a press. This was necessary so that the strips would stick together and the papyrus would become thin and uniform.

Nuances and little-known facts

It is not difficult to explain the technology for making papyrus. The difficulty was all in the nuances. So, the longer the papyrus was kept under pressure or pre-soaked, the darker it turned out. It was important not to delay the process: the Egyptians preferred light-colored material. The surface of the sheets was treated special composition, which prevented the ink from bleeding. It was made from vinegar, flour and boiling water. Having removed the sheets from the press, the craftsmen beat them with special hammers and smoothed them with polishing stones, pieces of wood or bone. The prepared papyri were dried in the sun. Then they were glued together to make a scroll. The Egyptians paid attention to the direction of the fibers, so it was almost impossible to detect the “seam”. They wrote, as a rule, on one side (which the Romans later called recto). The production of papyrus in Ancient Egypt was put on stream. They sold it in rolls: “cuts” and “by weight”.

Papyrus in antiquity

“Pa per aa”, or “material of kings”, is what the Egyptians themselves called their “paper”. They began using papyrus back in the 3rd millennium BC. e. The Greeks borrowed the term, slightly changing its pronunciation. It should be noted that Egypt provided all of the papyrus and this continued until about 800 AD. e. Decrees, artistic and religious texts were written on it, and colorful illustrations were made. In the 1st century AD e. historian Pliny the Elder in his work “Natural History” touched upon the question of what is the technology for making papyrus. However, the information he provided was rather scarce in order to restore the craft.

According to Strabo and Pliny, there were several varieties of papyrus. Augustan, Livy and Hieratic were considered the best during the Roman Empire. This was followed by the amphitheater (Alexandrian), Saite and Teneot. All of them were intended for writing. The Egyptians also traded in “merchant paper” - cheap “wrapping” papyrus.

Reviving the secrets of the craft

“What is the technology for making papyrus?” - this question began to worry Hassan Ragab, the Egyptian ambassador to the Celestial Empire, when he met a Chinese family engaged in paper production traditional way. This was in 1956. Returning to his homeland, Ragab bought land for a plantation, brought local papyrus from Sudan and began scientific research. Ragab and his students managed to produce papyrus that was not inferior in quality to the most ancient samples. Talented Egyptian artists painted it on it: copies of illustrations found in tombs and original works.

It is difficult to say whether the modern Ragaba papyrus will be as durable as the ancient Egyptian one. In addition, the climate has changed, it has become more humid, and moisture deteriorates papyrus. It is also unknown how accurately Ragab reproduced the process of making papyrus. Perhaps he brought something of his own to it. But, one way or another, modern scrolls are successfully sold, and information about the technology for making papyrus is available to every inquisitive tourist.

Ancient manuscripts, especially those from Egypt, are called papyri.

But in fact, papyrus is the name of the material on which they are inscribed. It's about about the plant of the same name, which was found in the Nile Delta. This material was incredibly durable...

Preserved for centuries

Papyrus was made by weaving. The material was fastened using a press with a sugar-based adhesive. Careful attitude and storage in the form of scrolls also contributed to the preservation of papyrus. Despite the fact that the scrolls could have decayed from dampness or dried out and turned into debris, this did not happen to them, and a favorable climate played an important role in this. In addition, experts of the relevant profile believe that the influence of magic on the bearer of knowledge is more than possible. After all, everything educated people of that time, in addition to the disciplines familiar to us, for example, mathematics or astronomy, they also studied alchemy and occult sciences. Since the papyri were compiled primarily by priests and read by others like them, some magical actions were probably performed on them, which had a beneficial effect on the condition of these written monuments. Some evidence also speaks in favor of this - for example, reports found in Thebes to officials from reverse side were covered in spells. One way or another, many manuscripts dating back to the 3rd millennium BC are perfectly preserved and are available for reading even now.

True, most likely, manuscripts written on papyrus have reached us. high quality, but there were a huge number of varieties of papyrus! To record political decrees, as well as information related to sacred or scientific research, only the most expensive and high-quality papyrus, created from the core of a plant stem, was used. To make the material more durable, it was kept under pressure twice as long as papyrus intended for everyday purposes, for example, the so-called “papyrus for merchants,” that is, an analogue of wrapping paper.

On a small raft...

Papyrus, oddly enough, was also used in the construction of boats and rafts. A number of scientists believe that the Egyptians were excellent sailors and sailed on their papyrus ships all the way to America. It is known for certain that members of the aristocratic families of Ancient Egypt took trips along the Nile on papyrus ships. Such a boat was buried with him after his death, so that his journey to afterlife ended in the best possible way. This version is also confirmed by drawings in the burial chambers. So, according to the magical inscriptions in the tomb of Pharaoh Unas, which is located in a necropolis near the ancient capital of Egypt - Memphis, the pharaoh must reunite with the sun god Ra and move forever across the sky. Since the sun travels from east to west in a “day boat,” the deified pharaoh must return, bypassing the underworld, in a “night boat.”

Indeed, with the help of video and photographic equipment, it was possible to discover a second ship buried in the chamber of the pyramid. It turned out that for the afterlife the pharaoh needed two vessels - made of papyrus and Lebanese cedar. However, the researchers make a reservation: “at least two boats,” that is, in principle there could be more of them...

Already in our time, an attempt was made to sail on a papyrus ship from Africa to America. The boat, called "Ra", was handmade by members of the expedition of the Norwegian explorer Thor Heyerdahl from bundles of papyrus. The first voyage ended in failure due to the wreck of the ship, but proved the fundamental possibility of navigation between the two largest continents in the distant past.

During the construction of the new papyrus vessel, the errors were corrected. The Ra II boat demonstrated to researchers its excellent seaworthiness, thus confirming the theory about the strength of papyrus.

Real and fake

Papyrus has not grown in Egypt for a long time; it is made from artificially grown analogues. In the store they may even sell you a fake. Real papyrus does not wrinkle, does not break when bent, and does not smell of anything - unlike “imitations” made from rice straws, banana or palm leaves. They are mainly sold in souvenir shops. It is enough to try to bend the papyrus - if a trace remains, it means that this is a fake. Natural papyrus can be placed in water, washed, crumpled and then straightened out again. The sheet will take its previous appearance, you will not find any torn edges or other defects. When holding the papyrus up to the light, dark inclusions should be visible - these are sugar residues. If you roll papyrus into a tube in one direction and then in another, it should not crack, because it is made without the use of glue. During such an experiment, banana papyrus will instantly deteriorate, tear and lose its “marketable” appearance.

From papyrus to paper

Although papyri from Ancient Egypt “came” to many other countries, including Greece, Rome and Israel, other peoples also had their own favorite materials for creating manuscripts, from which entire manuscripts were sometimes compiled.

Thus, the inhabitants of Mesopotamia preferred to write on clay tablets. Representatives of many nationalities wrote on the bark of trees. This custom existed among Russians, American Indians and in many countries Southeast Asia. And Europeans often wrote on bast. In India, ligature was carved on boards, and banana leaves were used for short-term use. Specially processed calf skins, that is, parchment, were widely used, but after papyrus spread throughout the Roman Empire, writing on parchment began to be considered bad manners. In the 8th century papyrus began to be replaced by those imported from China. Although, for a certain period, all these types of storage media coexisted simultaneously.

I cannot look without excitement at this plant with long bare stems, at the top of which there are dense whorls of thin leaves.
This plant transports my thoughts not only to distant lands, but also to the most distant times.
In Leningrad, in the Hermitage, we carefully preserve pieces of brown scrolls with strange writings that look like drawings.
They were found in Egypt in the ancient tombs of pharaohs and noble people. Scrolls of strange “paper” tied with laces were always found in sarcophagus coffins. Many of these scrolls, some up to forty meters long and one meter wide, lasted over five thousand years.
Who wrote these strange letters on long scrolls? In those distant times, scribes who were highly respected wrote.
Beautiful hymns have come down to us over thousands of years on crisp yellow scrolls, dedicated to the sun, scary tales and stories.
These scrolls also preserved the teaching of a teacher to a schoolboy: “And a hawk must be taught to build a nest, and a falcon must be taught to fly! I will make a man out of you, you worthless boy, know that.”
Egyptian scrolls with writing are called papyrus.
Translated from Egyptian, papyrus means “gift of the river.”

Papyrus on the banks of the Nile.

Papyrus is a plant that grew in ancient times on the swampy banks of the Nile.
It was bred as a cultivated plant near Memphis, Thebes and other cities.
Now papyrus is found only in the upper reaches of the Nile, on Lake Chad and in the Niger and Congo basins, that is, in the tropics of Africa.
In places where papyrus grows, the banks of the river form dark green walls three and even five meters high, stretching continuously.
Green wall consists of straight triangular stems as thick as an arm. At the top of such a stem, a thick bunch or umbrella of long and narrow leaves hangs to the sides.
Sometimes, among the green umbrellas with leaves, a stem appears with a taller umbrella of inflorescences in the form of a fan gray, consisting of complex spikelets in which the flowers are covered with scales.
Flowers with three stamens and one tripartite pistil resemble the flowers of a common plant in our swamp - sedge, which also has a triangular stem.
Papyrus and sedge, it turns out, are from the same sedge family (Cyperaceae).
The fruits of papyrus, like those of cereals, are caryopses. Papyrus has interesting roots, which partly float in the water, like an underwater swaying forest of white stems. Some of the roots and thick woody rhizomes take root in swampy banks, strengthening them and contributing to the accumulation of silt.
Papyrus rhizomes, which taste like almonds, are fragrant and nutritious. The Egyptians ate them raw and roasted. These rhizomes are the main food of hippopotamuses, which, along with the disappearance of papyrus in the lower reaches of the Nile, moved to its upper reaches.
The triangular stems of papyrus, as an aquatic and marsh plant, have air vessels and large intercellular spaces filled with air. They are light and do not sink in water.

Ancient Egyptian bas-relief depicting the collection of papyrus.

In ancient times, papyrus stems were tied in bunches and made into two-seater shuttles for catching fish and birds. They caulked large ships. Mats and baskets were woven from the stems. Sandals were made from the bark, and fabrics were made from the fiber, which were valued higher than linen.
The most important thing is that a type of paper called papyrus was made from the papyrus plant.
The core was extracted from the cut papyrus stems, dividing it into thin long strips. These strips were laid in close rows on a smooth board and moistened with water. Another row was laid out on the first row, but this time across. They scraped, smoothed, put under a press and dried in the sun. Other strips were glued to the resulting strip. In order for the ink to stick better, the papyrus was dipped in paste and dried again.
The result of such work was dense, slightly yellowish papyrus, which for many centuries replaced paper and preserved in mysterious writing the thoughts and feelings of people who long ago lived in Egypt, Palestine, Greece and Rome.
To us, living in a northern city in the 20th century, ancient Egypt seems not so distant. On the banks of the Neva “we have sphinxes under the snow.” Imperishable scrolls of ancient papyrus are carefully kept in the Hermitage. On our windows there is living papyrus from the banks of the Nile.

WHAT CAN YOU DO WITH PAPYRUS

How to create natural conditions for papyrus

Cyperus - papyrus.

How to create conditions for papyrus to develop and reproduce well?
Of course, papyrus needs conditions reminiscent of its life on the banks of the Nile tropical Africa. This is a swamp plant, and therefore the pot in which it grows must be immersed halfway in a container of water. But you should not place the entire papyrus under water. You can put part of the pot or roots pulled out of the pot into the aquarium. They grow well in water and give large number shoots, in some cases up to sixty. For better papyrus growth, nutrient solutions should be added to the water (according to the Tradescantia recipe).
At the bottom of the aquarium, under a layer of sand, there should be humus - turf and peaty - soil.
In its homeland, papyrus is exposed to drought, so at the beginning of winter the pot is removed from the water and watered (from below, from the saucer) rarely and moderately. In February, the papyrus is transplanted into fresh soil and placed in water again. It is useful to water the soil in the pot with slurry (25 grams cow dung per liter of water).
The papyrus is kept warm, not lower than 16°, and placed in a sunny window. In Egypt, papyrus grows under the scorching rays of the sun, but in our rooms it has already become unaccustomed to them and even with very strong solar heating its leaves dry out. All drying leaves must be cut off.
With proper care, papyrus blooms in April - May, after which the old leaves begin to dry out, but new ones appear to replace them.
If you can get papyrus seeds, they should be sown in damp turf soil with sand. At first, the seedlings are filled with water.
But even without seeds you can propagate this “historical” plant.
Cut off a whorl of leaves and throw them onto the surface of the aquarium water or place them on wet sand, covering them with a jar.
Young plants will grow from dormant buds in the leaf axils.
When replanting, large papyrus bushes can be divided into two or four.
Papyrus has a botanical name - Cyperus papyrus, or an older name - Papyrus antiquorum - ancient, antique papyrus.
But another, somewhat smaller, type of papyrus is more common and grows especially well in rooms - Cyperus alternifolius - alternate-leaved (Cyperus alternifolius) from the island of Madagascar, off the eastern coast of Africa.
Let's try to make real Egyptian papyrus from cut cyperus stems ourselves. On it we will write a hymn to the sun.

Cyperus reminds us of the scorching sun.
Without the sun, plants do not grow or bloom.

INTRODUCTION

When it's snowing outside ..................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 5

Part I
THROUGH DISTANT DESERTS

Desert Beauty ................................................... ........................................................ .................................... 13
Green freaks, or princesses of the night .................................................... ........................................................ ........ 25
Plant with four thousand flowers .................................................... ........................................................ ....... 50
Agave 2 from the Karoo Desert .................................................. ........................................................ .......... 55
Plants “playing hide and seek” .................................................... ........................................................ .................... 60
Plants with false leaves ............................................................ ........................................................ .......... 67

Part II
THROUGH THE TROPICAL FORESTS

Crybaby from the forests of the Amazon River .................................................... ........................................................ ................... 73
Rubber tree of the Indian jungle .................................................... ........................................................ ..... 84
Twenty plants from one leaf .................................................... ........................................................ ............ 97
A tree that destroys moths .................................................... ........................................................ .................... 108
“Pike tail” in a flower pot .................................................... ........................................................ ............... 111
“Vanka” from Zanzibar .................................................... ........................................................ ................................... 113
Tropical swamp plant ............................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 121
Dragon tree .................................................... ........................................................ .................................... 130
Stolen Treasure .................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 134
Papyrus of ancient Egypt................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 138

Part III
IN THE SOVIET SUBTROPICS

A giant tree that does not provide shade .................................................... ........................................................ .................... 145
Elixir of vigor .................................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 156
“Crane nose” .................................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 159
Two-story trees with golden apples .................................................... ................................................... 176
Forgotten houseplant .................................................... ........................................................ .................... 190
Queen of Flowers .................................................... ........................................................ ............................................... 195
“Friendly family” .................................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 205
Memories of the Motherland .................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 209
“Sister” of tea .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................................ .217
“Golden” or “sausage” tree ............................................... ........................................................ ............... 222
Saxifraga family ................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 224
Doll trees .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 228
Green “animals” .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 232
This plant is poisonous! ........................................................ ........................................................ ........................... 237
Plant “walking” along the wall .................................................... ........................................................ ....................... 242
“Owner” of the world’s greatest flower ............................................... ........................................................ ............. 249
Alchemist's flower ................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 253
Stone house behind the bulb .................................................... ........................................................ ............................ 261
Flowers of chance .................................................... ........................................................ .................................... 269
Study guide that crossed the ocean .................................................... ........................................................ .......... 273
According to the behests of I.V. Michurin ............................................... ........................................................ ........................... 280
World map on the window ................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 292

Part IV
HOW TO CARE FOR YOUR HOME GARDEN

How to place green friends .................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 301
Fighting colds .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 304
Complicated procedure .................................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 306
Bath day .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................................ .310
Earth kitchen .................................................... ........................................................ ........................................... 311
Spring replanting .................................................... ........................................................ ..................................... 315
Surgical operations .................................................... ........................................................ ............................... 317
Greenhouse made of light bulbs and pots .................................................... ........................................................ ................... 318
Medical assistance .................................................... ........................................................ .................................... 320
Electric sanatorium ................................................... ........................................................ ........................... 323
Plants “came out” onto the balcony ................................................... ........................................................ ................................... 327
Evening with green friends .................................................... ........................................................ ................................... 329
Index of plants mentioned in the book .................................................... ........................................................ ..... 332