States in commonwealth with Great Britain. When did the British Commonwealth of Nations come into being?

The War of Independence of the American British Colonies ended, as we know, with a victory for the colonies. The British Empire lost 13 colonies, leaving only Canada on the North American continent.

In this regard, in the metropolis, the formation of two different points of view began on the future policy of Britain regarding overseas possessions. Supporters of one advocated the expansion of British influence in India and the Far East, while supporters of the second believed that expanding influence was certainly necessary, but it was necessary to allow the development of self-government in the colonies in order to prevent a repetition of the War of Independence of the North American colonies.

Gradually, reforms began to be carried out, as a result of which the differences became even more obvious between those colonies in which the development of territories was carried out by settlers from Britain and where there were already prospects for the development of self-government, and those territories where, after the conquest, direct forms of British rule were established.

Despite a lot of differences, both colonies are more or less independent public education with the local government, which had the right to pursue independent policies.

This approach gave impetus to the development of parliamentary forms of government in the colonies and the opportunity to establish the rule of law. The latter was greatly facilitated by the spread English language, its use in administrative and educational spheres.

While the mother country was discussing the development of self-government in the colonies, Canada took the initiative into its own hands and in 1837 Upper and Lower Canada rebelled. The main demand was to secure the rights of colonial self-government, which were first established by American revolutionaries 60 years ago.

Representatives of the authorities reacted quite quickly and in 1839 Lord Durham, Governor General of the British North America, made a proposal to form a government cabinet in the colonies, similar to the British one.

This colonial assembly and the executive branch responsible to it received the right to exercise control over domestic policy, but Great Britain retained the right to a decisive vote in the following areas of colonial policy:

• control over public lands,
• form of colonial constitutions,
• foreign policy,
• foreign trade,
• defense.

All these restrictions were lifted before the end of the First World War.

Development

The term "Commonwealth of Nations" was first used by British Prime Minister Lord Roseberry in 1884. Officially, the basis of the new colonial policy and the status of the Commonwealth were established at the Colonial Conference held in 1887 in London.

The most developed colonies acquired the status of dominions. Now they have become, de jure, autonomous quasi-state entities, and de facto - independent states. However, this did not in any way affect their entry into the British Commonwealth of Nations - an association designed to unite the vast British Empire.

Among the first dominions to emerge were Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia and New Zealand, later - the Union of South Africa, the Dominion of Newfoundland and Ireland.

One of the most significant stages in the history of the Commonwealth was the Second World War. After its end, or rather, since 1946, from the “British Commonwealth of Nations” this association became simply the “Commonwealth of Nations”.

Events in India, which gained independence in 1947 and established a republican form of government on its territory, prompted a thorough revision of the provisions on the existence of the Commonwealth.

In addition to changing the name, the goals of the association’s activities were also adjusted: now humanitarian missions are put at the forefront, educational activities and so on. Within the framework of the Commonwealth, states with different levels of development and the nature of their economies were given the opportunity to cooperate at a new level as equal partners.

According to the new agreements, each of the Commonwealth countries has the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from the organization.

Participating countries

The Commonwealth currently includes 17 countries (not counting the UK), which are also called Commonwealth Realms. The total population of the Commonwealth countries is about 1.8 billion, which is approximately 30% of the total population of the planet. Formally, the head of these states is recognized as the British monarch, who is represented by the governor-general.

This does not prevent the majority of member countries from recognizing the authority of the British Crown, which in no way affects their status within the Commonwealth. It is not initially political organization and therefore Great Britain has no right to interfere in the politics of its members.

Not all countries that are part of the Commonwealth today had colonial ties with the British Empire. The first of these countries to join the organization was Mozambique. The Commonwealth has never included: Burma and Aden, Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Bahrain, Jordan, Kuwait, Qatar and Oman. There have been cases of secession from the Commonwealth (Zimbabwe), including with the subsequent restoration of membership. For example, this happened with Pakistan and South Africa.

Structure of the British Commonwealth

The head of the Commonwealth of Nations is the British monarch, currently held by Elizabeth II. The post of head of the Commonwealth is not a title and is not inherited. When the monarch changes, the head of government of the Commonwealth member countries will have to make a formal decision on the appointment of a new head of the organization.

Administrative management is carried out by the Secretariat, whose headquarters have been in London since 1965. Since 2008, the Commonwealth Secretariat has been headed by Kamalesh Sharma (India).

• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "Commonwealth of Nations".
• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "British Empire".
• Free electronic encyclopedia Wikipedia, section "Overseas Territories".
• Great Soviet Encyclopedia
• Encyclopedia Around the World

Having lost its industrial monopoly, Great Britain was still the largest colonial power. About 500 million people were under her rule. The territory of the metropolis was 140 times smaller than the colonies. According to the state legal statute, British possessions were divided into four groups: dominions, protectorates, colonies and mandated territories.

So, dominions(translated from English - possession) - Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa - used independence, which was constantly increasing. They not only had their own parliaments, governments, armies and finances, but sometimes they themselves owned colonies, such as Australia. Protectorates became colonial countries with relatively developed state power And public relations. In them, colonial policy was carried out in the form indirect control: There were two levels of colonial administration. Supreme power belonged to the British to governors general. Unlike the governors of the dominions, who rather represented the interests of the British crown, the governors of the protectorates were the sovereign masters of the subject countries. Along with them there was native administration(local rulers, leaders), which enjoyed limited independence, was endowed with certain judicial and police powers: the right to collect local taxes, and had its own budgets. Colonies were dependent territories that were directly administered and subject to London, with little or no rights to self-government. The exception was the crown colonies with a significant layer of white population who had great privileges and even their own colonial parliaments.

Nevertheless, under the pressure of the national liberation movement, which expanded as a result of the development of its own economies and the formation of a national bourgeoisie, the system of colonial administration was gradually reorganized. Changed types British colonial policy. In 1917, at the imperial conference, the status of the dominions was recognized autonomous states British Empire. By participating in the Paris Peace Conference, the Canadian delegation achieved the right for the dominions to independently sign peace treaties and to have separate representation from England in the League of Nations. At the imperial conference held in 1923, England recognized the dominions the right to independently enter into contracts with foreign states, as well as determine in each individual case their participation or non-participation in international treaties, concluded by England. The British government in 1919–1921. was forced to admit independence Afghanistan, Egypt, transfer to the category dominions Ireland. However, even after these countries were granted independence, British capital retained key positions in the economy there. Thousands of British advisers had a great influence on the domestic and foreign policies of the governments of these countries. The governments of Iran, China, and Turkey were strongly influenced by England. In 1921, according to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, six north-eastern counties (Ulster), constituting the most industrially developed part of Ireland, were torn away from England and formed a dominion of the British Empire called Irish Free State.

To maintain control over the resources of these countries in new form– in the form of indirect (indirect) control, at the all-imperial conferences of the dominions in 1926 and 1930. was developed Constitution British Empire. 11 December 1931 entered into force Statute of Westminster. He secured the unification of the English dominions in British Commonwealth nations and created confederation The statute states that Great Britain and the Dominions “are autonomous state units of the British Empire, equal in statute, not in any respect subordinate to each other in any sense whatsoever in their internal and foreign affairs, although united by a common subjection to the Crown and freely united as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations." Colonial system management was significantly transformed. According to the Statute of Westminster English king was officially declared the head of the British Commonwealth of Nations, which included: Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State, and Newfoundland. The Act abolished the right of the British government to interfere in the internal affairs of the Dominions. The Validity of Colonial Laws Act of 1865 no longer applied to the dominions. The Statute of Westminster gave the dominions the right to independently resolve issues of internal and foreign policy, exchange diplomatic representatives with other countries, participate in international agreements.

Now the English Parliament couldn't to make laws for the dominions except at their request or with their consent. Laws passed by the Dominion parliaments could not be repealed, even if they contradicted English laws. The statute contained a remarkable clause: “However, the principles of equality and similarity attached to status do not extend universally to functions.” Governor General dominion could be appointed by the king only by recommendations Prime Minister of the Dominion. He was no longer considered an authorized representative of the metropolitan government, but only representative king. In addition to the Governor General, British ambassadors were sent to the dominions, called high commissioners. Their role was formally reduced to diplomatic representation. For their part, the dominions received right appoint similar representatives (ambassadors) to the metropolis. Statute of Westminster expanded state independence of the dominions, eliminated a number of disagreements between the bourgeoisie of the dominions and the metropolis. Despite all this, the position of the colonies, protectorates and mandated territories remained the same. Imperial conferences began to be convened annually to resolve important issues. prime ministers countries of the British Commonwealth of Nations.

After the Second World War, there came a period of surge in the national liberation movement in the colonies. India, Pakistan, Ceylon in 1946 received the status dominion As a result of the colonial wars they achieved independence Ghana, Federation of Malaya (1957). In 1960, Cyprus and Nigeria became independent. At numerous constitutional conferences of the 40s–60s. XX century, at which the future of British possessions was discussed, their government system, Great Britain, which formally participated in them as a mediator, in reality sought to maintain a British presence in all areas of future independent states. And she succeeded. So, to open up the possibility of joining Commonwealth for those colonies that accepted dominion status, but established republican form of government, the Conference of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in April 1949 decided to repeal the 1931 Statute of Westminster formula that “the members of the Commonwealth are united by a common allegiance to the Crown” and consider English king only "a symbol of free association independent nations- members of the Commonwealth and as such the head of the Commonwealth." However, in 1948, Great Britain was forced to recognize Ireland's decision to secede from the British Commonwealth and proclaim the Irish Republic.

IN modern form, the Commonwealth is an association of former dominions that recognize the English monarch as the head of state, and a number of other countries with various forms boards with their own head of state (such as Ghana, Kenya, Sri Lanka). Currently, the British Commonwealth of Nations unites 53 states and represents modern type confederation. It would seem that confederations are doomed to collapse, but the experience of the Commonwealth allows us to speak of a certain stability of this integration formation. Annual Commonwealth conferences develop solutions to socio-economic problems in the former dominions, mainly located in Africa.

At the 1926 Conference of Prime Ministers of Great Britain and the British Dominions, the Balfour Declaration was adopted, in which Great Britain and the Dominions recognized that these states had "equal status and are not dependent on each other in any aspect of their domestic or foreign policy, despite the fact that they are brought together by a common loyalty to the Crown and free membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations."

The legal status of the Commonwealth was established on December 11, 1931, and until 1947 it represented a kind of union of states, each of which was united with Great Britain by a personal union (that is, the British monarch was recognized as the head of the dominions).

Development

Membership in the Commonwealth is open to all countries that recognize the main goals of its activities. There must also be past or present constitutional links between the applicant and the UK or another Commonwealth member. Not all members of the organization have direct constitutional ties to Great Britain - some of the South Pacific states were governed by Australia or New Zealand, and Namibia was governed by South Africa. In 1995, Cameroon became a member of the Commonwealth. Only part of its territory was under British control under the mandate of the League of Nations (-) and under the trusteeship agreement with the UN (1946-1961).

There is only one member of the Commonwealth for whom this rule has been violated. Mozambique, a former colony of Portugal, was admitted to the Commonwealth following the triumphant restoration of South Africa's membership and the holding of Mozambique's first democratic elections. Mozambique was asked for by its neighbors, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and wanted to help Mozambique overcome the damage caused to the country's economy due to its confrontation with the white minority regimes in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. The heads of state of the Commonwealth nevertheless decided that the Mozambique issue should be considered as special and not creating a precedent for the future.

Failed membership

Termination of membership

Each Commonwealth country enjoys the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it.

Although heads of government of Commonwealth member countries have the right to suspend the participation of individual countries in the work of Commonwealth bodies, the possibility of exclusion from the Commonwealth is not defined by any documents. At the same time, states of the Commonwealth (Commonwealth Realms) that proclaim themselves to be republics automatically leave the Commonwealth unless they ask the remaining members to maintain their membership in the Commonwealth. Ireland did not make such a request, since at the time of its proclamation of a republic in 1949 this provision did not yet exist. The issue of Ireland joining the Commonwealth has been raised several times, but this proposal does not enjoy support among the local population, who continue to associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism. The Irish Republic became the first state to leave the Commonwealth and not regain its membership.

Suspension of participation in Commonwealth affairs

IN recent years There were several cases of suspension of the participation of Commonwealth members “in the activities of Commonwealth Councils” (in meetings of leaders and ministers of member countries) for obvious violations of democratic governance norms. This measure does not terminate that State's membership in the Commonwealth.

This measure was taken in relation to Fiji in and after the military coup in this country and in relation to Pakistan from to and from November for a similar reason.

Nigeria did not participate in the meetings from to. A similar measure was taken in relation to Zimbabwe (the reason was the electoral and land reforms of the government of Robert Mugabe).

Structure of the Commonwealth

Marlborough House, headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat

Traditionally, the head of the Commonwealth is declared to be the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain. As the head of the Commonwealth, she does not perform any formal functions and her role in the daily activities of the organization is only symbolic. In 17 Commonwealth states, the British monarch is still the de jure head of state, but also does not perform formal functions.

The post of head of the Commonwealth is not a title and is not inherited. When there is a change of monarch on the British throne, the heads of government of the Commonwealth member countries will have to make a formal decision on the appointment of a new head of the organization.

The administrative management of the Commonwealth is carried out by the Secretariat, whose headquarters have been located in London since 1965. Since 2008, the head of the Secretariat has been Kamalesh Sharma (India).

The anniversary of the creation of the Commonwealth - Commonwealth Day - is celebrated in Great Britain on the second Tuesday of March, and official name The British government's Foreign Office (similar to the Foreign Office) is still the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Foreign and Commonwealth Office ).

Diplomatic relations

The states belonging to the Commonwealth maintain ordinary diplomatic relations among themselves through High Commissioners ( High Commissioners), having the rank of ambassadors. Diplomatic relations between the Commonwealth countries and other states are carried out as usual.

The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary interstate association headed by. In addition to Great Britain itself, it includes almost all of its former colonies, protectorates, dominions, as well as Cameroon, Mozambique, Namibia and Rwanda. Today there are 53 member countries of the Commonwealth of Nations in the world. The head of the Commonwealth is the monarch of Great Britain.

The basis of the Commonwealth is the recognition of the equal status of each of the states, independent of each other in any aspect of their domestic or foreign policy, despite the fact that these states are brought together by a common loyalty to the Crown and free membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations.

The British Dependencies are 14 countries under the sovereignty of Great Britain, but not part of the monarchy. Unlike the voluntary Commonwealth of Nations, these states and their territories are under the control of Great Britain. Before the official term “Great Dependent Territories” was introduced in 2002, these countries were called “colonies”.

If you are, for example, you will be asked, “Have you visited the UK, Commonwealth countries or British Dependencies in the last 10 years?” If you have visited one of the countries listed below, you should note this on your UK visa application.

Commonwealth countries

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UK dependent territories

• Anguilla
• Bermuda
• British Antarctic Territory
• British Indian Ocean Territory
• British Virgin Islands
• Cayman Islands
• Falkland Islands

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At the 1926 Conference of Prime Ministers of Great Britain and the British Dominions, the Balfour Declaration was adopted, in which Great Britain and the Dominions recognized that these states had "equal status and are not dependent on each other in any aspect of their domestic or foreign policy, despite the fact that they are brought together by a common loyalty to the Crown and free membership in the British Commonwealth of Nations."

The legal status of the Commonwealth was established on December 11, 1931, and until 1947 it represented a kind of union of states, each of which was united with Great Britain by a personal union (that is, the British monarch was recognized as the head of the dominions).

Development

Membership in the Commonwealth is open to all countries that recognize the main goals of its activities. There must also be past or present constitutional links between the applicant and the UK or another Commonwealth member. Not all members of the organization have direct constitutional ties to Great Britain - some of the South Pacific states were governed by Australia or New Zealand, and Namibia was governed by South Africa. In 1995, Cameroon became a member of the Commonwealth. Only part of its territory was under British control under the mandate of the League of Nations (-) and under the trusteeship agreement with the UN (1946-1961).

There is only one member of the Commonwealth for whom this rule has been violated. Mozambique, a former colony of Portugal, was admitted to the Commonwealth following the triumphant restoration of South Africa's membership and the holding of Mozambique's first democratic elections. Mozambique was asked for by its neighbors, all of whom were members of the Commonwealth and wanted to help Mozambique overcome the damage caused to the country's economy due to its confrontation with the white minority regimes in Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa. The heads of state of the Commonwealth nevertheless decided that the Mozambique issue should be considered as special and not creating a precedent for the future.

Failed membership

Termination of membership

Each Commonwealth country enjoys the unconditional right to unilaterally withdraw from it.

Although heads of government of Commonwealth member countries have the right to suspend the participation of individual countries in the work of Commonwealth bodies, the possibility of exclusion from the Commonwealth is not defined by any documents. At the same time, states of the Commonwealth (Commonwealth Realms) that proclaim themselves to be republics automatically leave the Commonwealth unless they ask the remaining members to maintain their membership in the Commonwealth. Ireland did not make such a request, since at the time of its proclamation of a republic in 1949 this provision did not yet exist. The issue of Ireland joining the Commonwealth has been raised several times, but this proposal does not enjoy support among the local population, who continue to associate the Commonwealth with British imperialism. The Irish Republic became the first state to leave the Commonwealth and not regain its membership.

Suspension of participation in Commonwealth affairs

In recent years, there have been several cases of suspension of the participation of Commonwealth members “in the activities of Commonwealth Councils” (meetings of leaders and ministers of member countries) for obvious violations of democratic governance standards. This measure does not terminate that State's membership in the Commonwealth.

This measure was taken in relation to Fiji in and after the military coup in this country and in relation to Pakistan from to and from November for a similar reason.

Nigeria did not participate in the meetings from to. A similar measure was taken in relation to Zimbabwe (the reason was the electoral and land reforms of the government of Robert Mugabe).

Structure of the Commonwealth

Marlborough House, headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat

Traditionally, the head of the Commonwealth is declared to be the British monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain. As the head of the Commonwealth, she does not perform any formal functions and her role in the daily activities of the organization is only symbolic. In 17 Commonwealth states, the British monarch is still the de jure head of state, but also does not perform formal functions.

The post of head of the Commonwealth is not a title and is not inherited. When there is a change of monarch on the British throne, the heads of government of the Commonwealth member countries will have to make a formal decision on the appointment of a new head of the organization.

The administrative management of the Commonwealth is carried out by the Secretariat, whose headquarters have been located in London since 1965. Since 2008, the head of the Secretariat has been Kamalesh Sharma (India).

The anniversary of the creation of the Commonwealth - Commonwealth Day - is celebrated in the UK on the second Tuesday in March, and the official name of the British Government's Foreign Office (analogous to the Foreign Office) is still the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Foreign and Commonwealth Office ).

Diplomatic relations

The states belonging to the Commonwealth maintain ordinary diplomatic relations among themselves through High Commissioners ( High Commissioners), having the rank of ambassadors. Diplomatic relations between the Commonwealth countries and other states are carried out as usual.