On which peninsula is Saudi Arabia located? Saudi Arabia: attractions and general information

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, whose population dates back to the second millennium BC (it was then that the indigenous Arab tribes occupied the entire Arabian Peninsula), is today a major member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. The state ranks second in the world in the production and export of oil and petroleum products. In addition, referring to Mecca and Medina - the main holy cities of Islam - Saudi Arabia is called the Land of the Two Holy Mosques. It is the rich deposits of black gold and the penetration of religion into many areas of life that distinguish the kingdom.

General information about Saudi Arabia

The state from where Islam spread occupies about 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Most of the country is occupied by desert areas, foothills and mountains of medium height, so that less than 1% of the land is suitable for cultivation. The Arabian Peninsula is one of the few places on Earth where summer temperatures consistently exceed 50 degrees.

The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh. Other major cities are Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Em-Dammam, Al-Hofuf. There are 27 settlements with a population of more than 100 thousand people, four millionaire cities. The capital of Saudi Arabia is traditionally not only the administrative, but also the political, scientific, educational and business center of the country. Religious and cultural centers, shrines of the state - Mecca and Medina.

The official symbols are the Saudi flag, coat of arms and anthem. The flag is a green cloth with a sword, symbolizing the victories of the founder of the state, and an inscription - the Muslim symbol of faith (shahadah). Interestingly, the flag of Saudi Arabia is never flown at half-mast on occasions of mourning. Also, the image cannot be applied to clothing and souvenirs, since the Shahada is considered sacred for Muslims.

The king of Saudi Arabia who rules the state today is a direct descendant of the first king, Abdul Aziz. The power of Salman ibn Abdul-Aziz Al Saud from the Saudi dynasty is actually limited only by Sharia law. Important government decisions are made by the king after consultation with a group of religious leaders and other respected members of Saudi society.

Current demographic situation

The population of Saudi Arabia as of 2014 was 27.3 million people. About 30% of them are visitors, while indigenous people are Arab Saudis. After a brief stabilization of demographic indicators in 2000 at around 20 million people, the population of Saudi Arabia began to grow again. In general, the dynamics of the population of the kingdom do not show sharp jumps in population size.

Other relevant demographic indicators for Saudi Arabia are:

• birth rate - 18.8 per 1000 people;
• mortality - 3.3 per 1000 people;
• the total fertility rate is 2.2 children per woman;
• natural population growth - 15.1;
• migration population growth is 5.1 per 1000 people.

Density of inhabitants and pattern of settlement

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers an area of ​​2,149,610 square kilometers. In terms of territory, the state is 12th in the world and the first among the countries of the Arabian Peninsula. These data, as well as an approximate estimate of the population for 2015, make it possible to calculate the value of population density. The figure is 12 people per square kilometer.

Most of Saudi Arabia's population is concentrated in cities. Firstly, the relief and climate of the Arabian Peninsula make it possible to live comfortably only within the oases, around which the largest cities of the state were once formed. Secondly, a significant share of the urban population is due to the structure of the economy, where agriculture occupies an extremely small part, due to the tiny percentage of land suitable for growing plants and livestock.

The kingdom's urbanization rate is 82.3% and the corresponding rate is 2.4% per year. More than five million people live in the capital of Saudi Arabia. The total population of the remaining three million-dollar cities amounts to another six million Saudis. Thus, the four largest cities of the kingdom are home to eleven million people out of 31.5 (estimated for 2015), which is equal to approximately 35% of the country's inhabitants.

Religious affiliation of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is highly religious, is officially Islamic state. Islam as the state religion is enshrined in the first article of the Basic Law of the state. 92.8% of Saudi Arabia's population is Muslim. By the way, tourists who do not profess Islam are prohibited from entering Mecca and Medina.

The second most followed religion in the kingdom is Christianity. The number of Christians is about 1.2 million, the majority of whom are foreigners. Quite often, cases of oppression of adherents of other religions (non-Muslims) are recorded in the country - Saudi Arabia is in sixth place among the states where the rights of Christians are most often oppressed.

Atheism in the kingdom is considered a grave sin and equated to terrorism, so it is impossible to estimate the exact number of non-believers in the country. The American Institute of Public Opinion, based on surveys, provides the following data: 5% of Saudis are convinced atheists, about 19% call themselves non-believers. Profile publications publish smaller figures, indicating only 0.7% in the “atheists and non-believers” column.

Sex and age structure of the population

Saudi Arabia, whose population is mostly of working age, is distinguished by a progressive (or growing) type of age-sex pyramid. This is better seen in a simplified diagram, where only three categories of citizens are distinguished: children and adolescents (up to 14 years of age), the working population (from 15 to 65 years old) and elderly people (over 65 years old).

There are about 22 million working-age people, accounting for 67.6% of the total Saudi population. There are 9.6 million children and adolescents in the state, or 29.4%; elderly people account for only 3%; this group makes up 0.9 million people. In general, the dependent part of citizens (children and pensioners supported by the adult population) amounts to 32.4% of Saudis. Such indicators do not create a particularly significant social burden on society.

Saudi Arabia, whose population traditionally oppresses the fair sex, has an almost equal gender structure of the population. The country's population is 55% male and 45% female.

Women's rights in Saudi Arabia

Women's rights are severely limited in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population is deeply religious, so they follow all religious norms. Thus, women are prohibited from driving, voting, using public transport unless accompanied by a husband or male relative, and communicating with men (except for relatives and husbands). Representatives of the fair sex are required to wear long dark robes, and in some regions only their eyes are allowed to be left open.

The quality of education for women in Saudi Arabia is worse than for men. In addition, female students receive smaller stipends than their male counterparts. And in general, representatives of the fair sex do not have the right to study, work or travel outside the country unless their husband or closest male relative allows them to do so. Even for rape in Saudi Arabia, the woman can be punished, not the criminal. In this case, the victim is charged with “provocation to rape” or violation of the dress code.

Saudi Arabia, whose population gives the main prerogative to men, adheres to the principles of gender segregation. For example, houses have separate entrances for women and men, restaurants are divided into several zones (women's, men's and family), special events are held separately, and classes for students of different genders are held at different times so that boys and girls do not overlap .

The King of Saudi Arabia has repeatedly stated that women will soon be granted certain rights. For example, he said that he would allow women to drive cars as soon as Saudi society was ready for this step. Of course, we will have to wait quite a long time for equal rights for women and men in Saudi society (and this is simply contrary to Islamic norms), but there are already some concessions for the fair sex.

Literacy rate of the kingdom's inhabitants

Saudi Arabia, which has a fairly literate population (94.4% of citizens over 15 can read and write), has different literacy rates for women and men. Thus, 97% of men and 91% of women can read and write, which is associated with the traditional oppression of the rights of the fair sex. However, among young people (from 15 to 24 years old), literacy rates are approximately equal: in Saudi Arabia, 99.4% and 99.3% of literate young men and women, respectively.

Culture in Saudi Arabia

The culture of the kingdom is very closely connected with the state religion. Muslims are forbidden to consume pork and alcohol, so mass celebrations are practically excluded. In addition, cinemas and theaters are prohibited in the country, but such establishments exist in areas populated mainly by foreigners. Home video viewing is very common in Saudi Arabia, and Western films are largely uncensored.

State economic structure

The country has 25% of the world's oil reserves, which determines the basis of the economy of a state such as Saudi Arabia. Oil provides almost all export revenues (90%). In the last thirty years, industry, transport, and trade have also developed, but the share of agriculture in the economy is very small.

The currency of Saudi Arabia is the Saudi Riyal. The exchange rate of the monetary unit is pegged to the US dollar at a ratio of 3.75 to 1. In conclusion, information for tourists on how the currency of Saudi Arabia is converted in terms of the currencies of other countries: 100 rial is 1500 rubles, 25 euros, 26.6 dollars United States of America.

Saudi Arabia, the map of which is presented below, is a country in the southwestern part of Asia, occupying about 80% of the area. The origin of its name is associated with the royal Saud family, which founded the state and continues to be in power in it to this day.

General description

The area of ​​Saudi Arabia is 2.15 million square kilometers. The state borders Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, UAE, Qatar, Yemen and Oman. In addition, it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. Its capital is Riyadh, which is home to more than five million people. Other major cities in Saudi Arabia are Jeddah, Mecca and Medina. Their population exceeds the one million mark.

Political structure

In March 1992, the first documents were adopted regulating the political structure of the state and the basic principles of its governance. Based on them, the country of Saudi Arabia is a theocratic absolute monarchy. Its constitution is based on the Koran. The Saudi dynasty has been in power since 1932. The King has full legislative, executive and judicial powers. Its powers are only theoretically limited by local traditions and Sharia norms. The government has been functioning in its current form since 1953. It is headed by the king, who determines the main directions of its activities. There is also a Council of Ministers in the country, which is entrusted with not only executive, but also legislative functions. All decisions taken by this authority are approved by decree of the King of the country of Saudi Arabia. The population of the state is obliged to comply with them. Administratively, the country is divided into thirteen provinces.

Economy

The local economy is based on private, free enterprise. At the same time, one cannot help but note the fact that control over the key ones is exercised by the government. The state boasts the largest oil reserves on the planet. It accounts for about 75% of his income. In addition, Saudi Arabia is the world leader in the export of black gold and plays a leading role in OPEC. The country also has reserves of zinc, chromium, lead, copper and

Population

The first census of local residents was carried out in 1974. From that time to the present day, the population of Saudi Arabia has almost tripled. Now the country is home to almost 30 million people. The vast majority of local residents are Arabs, a significant portion of whom have retained a tribal organization. Now there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country. It should also be noted that approximately one fifth of the population is made up of foreign workers. Based on official UN statistics, as of 1970, the country's infant mortality rate was 204 infants for every thousand births. Now there has been a significant positive shift in this indicator. In particular, thanks to the improvement in the standard of living and medical care in the country, out of a thousand newborns, only 19 children die.

Language

Arabic is the official language in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population uses mainly the Arabian dialect in everyday life, which comes from el-fuskhi. Within it there are several dialects that are close to each other. At the same time, city dwellers and descendants of nomads speak differently. Literary and spoken languages ​​have minor differences between themselves. In religious contexts, the classical Arabic dialect is mainly used. Common languages ​​among people from other countries are English, Indonesian, Urdu, Tagalog, Farsi and others.

Religion

Saudi Arabia is considered the center of the Islamic world. The country's population is almost in full force professes this particular religion. According to various estimates, up to 93% of local residents are Sunnis. The remaining part of Islam is predominantly Shia. As for other religions, approximately 3% of the country's inhabitants are Christians, and 0.4% are other faiths.

Education

Higher education in the country, although free, is not compulsory. A good job and a comfortable life in Saudi Arabia are possible without it. Be that as it may, there are a number of programs operating here, the main goal of which is to reduce the level of illiteracy among local residents. Currently, there are 7 universities and 16 higher educational institutions in the country. All of them are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education. Approximately 30 thousand students study abroad annually. Over the past few decades, the government has significantly increased spending on education. At the same time, the state requires a comprehensive reform in this area, which should create a new balance between modern and traditional teaching methods.

Medicine

Saudi Arabia is one of the most advanced countries in the world in terms of medicine. The population of the state has the right to receive related services free of charge. This applies to both residents of megacities and representatives of Bedouin tribes who roam in the desert. Every year the government allocates about 8% of the local budget for healthcare, which is simply a gigantic amount. Mandatory immunization of newborns is enshrined in law. The epidemiological control system, which was created in 1986, made it possible to completely defeat and eliminate such terrible diseases as plague and cholera.

Demographic problems

According to scientific research, if the current numbers of residents in the country continue (over the past 30 years they have been about 4% of the population per year), then by 2050 the population of Saudi Arabia will reach 45 million. In other words, very soon the country’s leadership will have to solve the problem associated not only with providing jobs to citizens, but also with ensuring a decent old age for currently working Saudis. This task is not so simple even for a state with such impressive oil reserves. The emergence of such problems is associated, first of all, with positive changes in the areas of nutrition and medical care, as well as with the improvement of living conditions in the country.

It is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula and one of the richest powers on the planet. It is here that the most important pilgrimage centers of the Muslim world are located, and the local oil reserves are openly envied by the most prosperous countries of our time. From different sides, the Saudi kingdom is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, as well as the Arabian and Red Seas, delighting the eyes of amazed guests arriving on these mysterious shores.

Peculiarities

The monarchy is flourishing in Saudi Arabia and is currently led by the son of the founder of the state from the Saudi dynasty, Abdullah ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud. The symbol of the country's economy is the oil refining industry, thanks to which the state's welfare has been maintained at the highest level for a long time. Among the regular buyers of oil and gas are the USA, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and other prosperous powers. The harsh Sharia laws under which the kingdom lives are an integral part of the image of Saudi Arabia in the West and often cause discontent among international organizations monitoring the observance of human rights. Punishments for violations of Islamic laws here are indeed very severe. A small offense can cost a person a certain amount of money, and a large one can cost a person his head, in the literal sense of the word. The religious police vigilantly monitor compliance with standards of behavior and morality.

The country's territorial expanses are mainly formed from rocky and sandy deserts, where lichens, white saxaul, tamarisk, acacias and other plants grow. Date palms, bananas, citrus fruits, grains and vegetable crops are often found in oases. Wildlife, despite the arid climate, is very diverse and is represented by many individuals, including antelopes, gazelles, wild donkeys, hares, jackals, hyenas, foxes, wolves, as well as dozens of species of birds and rodents. A significant disadvantage of the state's political structure is serious youth unemployment and too much dependence on the financial generosity of the ruling royal family.

General information

The territory of Saudi Arabia is quite vast and covers an area of ​​just under 2 million 150 thousand square meters. km, which is the 12th indicator in the world. The population is about 27 million people. Arabic is used as the main language. The monetary currency is the Saudi Riyal (SAR). 100 SAR = $SAR:USD:100:2. Time zone UTC+3. Local time coincides with Moscow time. Mains voltage 127 and 220 V at a frequency of 50 Hz, A, B, F, G. Country telephone code +966. Internet domain.sa.

A brief excursion into history

Since ancient times, the lands between the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea were occupied by Arab tribes, and in the 1st millennium BC, the Minaan and Sabaean kingdoms existed in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. At the same time, in the historical region of Hijaz, many centuries ago, pilgrimage centers of the Islamic world arose - Mecca and Medina. It was in Mecca that the Prophet Muhammad began to spread Islam at the beginning of the 7th century, and a little later settled in Medina, which later became the capital of the Arab Caliphate. In the late Middle Ages, Turkish rule was established on the peninsula.

The birth of the first Saudi state began in 1744, with the active participation of the ruler of the city of Ad-Diriyah, Muhammad ibn Saud, and the preacher Muhammad Abdul-Wahhab. It existed for only 73 years until it was destroyed by the Ottomans. The second Saudi state, founded in 1824, suffered the same fate. The creator of the third was Abd al-Aziz, who captured Riyadh at the beginning of the 20th century, and then subjugated the Najd region. In September 1932, after the unification of the Hijaz and Najd regions, modern Saudi Arabia was formed, whose king was Abd al-Aziz. In subsequent decades and to this day, the royal throne has been regularly passed down by inheritance, while international relations with the West still remain very moderate and not too open, allowing Saudi Arabia to maintain its relative closeness and confidentiality on the world political stage.

Climate

The country has an arid climate with minimal rainfall throughout the year. The air temperature in the winter months on the coast fluctuates between +20..+30 degrees, and in the summer the thermometer regularly exceeds +50 degrees. In desert areas it is somewhat cooler. In the summer, at night, the temperature there can drop to 0 degrees. Precipitation, depending on the region, falls only in winter and spring, and even then in small quantities. It is recommended to come here from September to October or from April to May, when it is not too hot and the sea winds sufficiently freshen the air.

Visa and customs regulations

Visiting Saudi Arabia by citizens of Russia and Ukraine is possible only with a transit, student, work, business or visitor visa. In addition, group visas are accepted for Hajj pilgrims to Mecca. Regular tourist visas to the country are not issued. During the application process, women must provide a copy of their marriage document or confirm their relationship with the man accompanying them on the trip. Without the latter, they are prohibited from leaving the airport transit zone. Local customs regulations provide for a complete ban on the transport of alcohol and printed materials in Hebrew. The death penalty is applied for drug trafficking.

How to get there

There are 4 international airports in Saudi Arabia, one of which is in the capital, King Khalid. The most convenient flight option is flights with transfers to or. In addition, the kingdom can be reached through, and after a few more European countries. There are a number of large seaports on the Persian Gulf coast that receive ferries from, and.

Transport

Rail and bus commuter services are developed within the country. Roads are very different high quality. Women under 30 years of age are allowed to drive only when accompanied by men.

Cities and resorts

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed and mysterious countries in the world. For many years, this Arab state has preserved its culture, religion, traditions and customs, hidden from human eyes. For many travel enthusiasts, a visit to the country of the sheikhs is a pipe dream, due to restrictions on foreign tourists, which, however, only makes it even more attractive and alluring.

The most important holy city of Muslims around the world is where the founder of the religion, Prophet Muhammad, was born. This is also where Holy Mosque Haram, accommodating up to 700 thousand people at a time. In the center of the mosque stands the Kaaba sanctuary, the corners of which are oriented to the four cardinal directions. The Kaaba is covered with a black silk blanket (kiswa), the upper part of which is decorated with sayings from the Koran embroidered in gold. The door to the sanctuary is made of pure gold and weighs 286 kg. In the eastern corner of the Kaaba there is a Black Stone, which is surrounded by a silver rim. In accordance with Muslim tradition, God gave this Black Stone to the first man expelled from paradise, Adam, after his sincere repentance.

Tradition says that the stone was originally white, but over time it turned black from the touch of sinners. Just a few meters separate the Kaaba from another Muslim shrine - the Makam Ibrahim stone, which contains the imprint of Abraham's foot. In the Haram mosque flows the sacred spring of Zamzam, given to Ismail at the time when he, along with Hagar (Hajar), perished in the desert from unbearable thirst. It was around this source that Mecca subsequently arose. According to the principles of Islam, every Muslim is obliged to visit Mecca at least once in his life.

Another holy city of Muslims is, because it is here that the Prophet’s Mosque is located, in which the grave of the prophet is located, Abu Bakr (the first caliph and the father of one of Muhammad’s wives) and Umar ibn Khattab (the second caliph) are buried nearby. It must be said that in total there are about a hundred such religious buildings in this city, which are made in various architectural styles.

You can admire the magnificent buildings of embassies and consulates. Be sure to visit the beautiful national park Asir.

Despite the fact that it is one of the most modern cities in the Middle East, it has still retained the historical appearance of a typically eastern city, representing a fortress with a medieval majestic flavor, winding narrow streets where you can get lost, adobe houses whose facades face to the yard. Here is the royal palace and the Jamida Mosque.

If you prefer an active holiday, you will be pleasantly surprised by the variety of entertainment offered. Thus, the traditional sport of the residents is camel racing. Both in the capital and in the most remote Bedouin camp, regardless of the time of year, you can watch racing, dressage, as well as various team games in which camels are directly involved. Equestrian sports are no less popular here, and everything related to horses is of enduring value for local residents.

An actively developing type of recreation in the country is scuba diving in the waters of the Red Sea. It must be said that foreign tourists appreciated the untouchedness, as well as the species diversity of this clear sea.

One cannot fail to mention deep-sea fishing in the waters of the Gulf and directly on the Red Sea. At the same time, ancient fishing rods are used for fishing. original methods fisheries that can easily compete with modern types of fishing, which is why such fishing tours are quite popular today.

Saudi Arabia is a fairly closed state, the tourism potential of which consists of the unique nature of the deserts, the combination of ancient traditions and modern trends, as well as many religious places of the Islamic world, which are the main reason for more than 90% of foreign citizens visiting the country.

Accommodation

Hotels of all categories are available throughout the Kingdom. Most tourist cities have the opportunity to rent an apartment for a short period of time; the owners of Shigka-maafroosha are located in hotel lobbies, offering their services to tourists. 4-5* hotels are quite expensive, but you get an excellent level of service, and the hotel restaurant will be open even during Ramadan.

Contents of the article

SAUDI ARABIA, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiya), a state on the Arabian Peninsula in South-West Asia. In the north it borders with Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; in the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf and borders with Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, in the southeast it borders with Oman, in the south with Yemen, in the west it is washed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The total length of the borders is 4431 km. Area – 2149.7 thousand square meters. km (data are approximate, since the boundaries in the south and southeast are not clearly established). In 1975 and 1981, agreements were signed between Saudi Arabia and Iraq to divide a small neutral zone on the border of the two states, which was implemented in 1987. Another agreement was signed with Qatar to demarcate the border until 1998. In 1996, the neutral zone was divided into border with Kuwait (5570 sq. km), but both countries continue to share oil and other natural resources in this area. Border issues with Yemen have not yet been resolved; Nomadic groups in the border areas with Yemen are resisting border demarcation. Negotiations between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia continue on the issue of the maritime border with Iran. The status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been definitively established (details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements have not been made public). Population – 24,293 thousand people, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners (2003). The capital is Riyadh (3,627 thousand). Administratively, it is divided into 13 provinces (103 districts).

NATURE

Terrain.

Saudi Arabia occupies almost 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula and several coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In terms of surface structure, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (elevation from 300–600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), weakly dissected by dry river beds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the Red Sea coast, stretch the Hijaz Mountains ( Arab."barrier") and Asir ( Arab.“difficult”) with an altitude of 2500–3000 m (with the highest point of An-Nabi Shuaib, 3353 m), passing into the coastal lowland of Tihama (width from 5 to 70 km). In the Asir Mountains, the terrain varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes over the Hijaz Mountains; communication between the interior of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, stretches the rocky Al-Hamad Desert. The largest sandy deserts: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dekhna), famous for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali ( Arab.“empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Undefined borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, incl. Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand square meters. km . Along the coast of the Persian Gulf stretches the El-Hasa lowland (up to 150 km wide) in places swampy or covered with salt marshes. The seashores are predominantly low, sandy, and slightly indented.

Climate.

In the north - subtropical, in the south - tropical, sharply continental, dry. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. Average temperature July in Riyadh ranges from 26° C to 42° C, in January - from 8° C to 21° C, the absolute maximum is 48° C, in the south of the country up to 54° C. In the mountains in winter, sub-zero temperatures and snow are sometimes observed . Average annual precipitation is about 70–100 mm (in the central regions maximum in spring, in the north - in winter, in the south - in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm per year. In the Rub al-Khali desert and some other areas, in some years there is no rain at all. Deserts are characterized by seasonal winds. The hot and dry southern winds samum and khamsin in spring and early summer often cause sandstorms, while the winter northern wind shemal brings cooling.

Water resources.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia has no permanent rivers or water sources; temporary streams form only after intense rainfall. They are especially abundant in the east, in Al-Hasa, where there are many springs irrigating the oases. Groundwater is often located close to the surface and under wadi beds. The water supply problem is addressed through the development of seawater desalination enterprises, the creation of deep wells and artesian wells.

Soils.

Primitive desert soils predominate; In the north of the country, subtropical gray soils are developed, in the low-lying eastern regions of Al-Hasa there are saline and meadow-salt soils. Although the government has a greening program, forests and woodlands occupy less than 1% of the country's area. Arable land (2%) is mainly located in fertile oases north of the Rub al-Khali. A significant territory (56%) is occupied by lands suitable for grazing livestock (as of 1993).

Natural resources.

The country has huge reserves of oil and natural gas. Proven reserves of crude oil reach 261.7 billion barrels, or 35.6 billion tons (26% of all world reserves), natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. In total there are about 77 oil and gas fields. The main oil-bearing area is located in the east of the country, in Al-Hasa. The reserves of the world's largest oil field, Ghawar, are estimated at 70 billion barrels of oil. Other large fields are Safaniya (proven reserves - 19 billion barrels of oil), Abqaiq, Qatif. There are also reserves of iron ore, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, and gold.

Flora world.

predominantly desert and semi-desert. White saxaul and camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood and astragalus grow on lava fields, single poplars and acacias grow along the wadi beds, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and salt marshes there are halophytic shrubs. A significant part of sandy and rocky deserts is almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and wet years, the role of ephemerals in the vegetation composition increases. In the Asir Mountains there are areas of savannah where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops.

Animal world

quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild ass, onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Birds include eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, hazel grouses, quails, and pigeons. Coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2,000 species of corals in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially prized). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government established Asir National Park, which preserves nearly extinct species such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex.

POPULATION

Demography.

In 2003, 24,293 thousand people lived in Saudi Arabia, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners. Since the first census conducted in 1974, the population has tripled. In 1990–1996, the average annual population growth was 3.4%, in 2000–2003 – 3.27%. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2 per 1000 people, the death rate was 5.79. Life expectancy is 68 years. In terms of age, more than half of the country's residents are under 20 years old. Women make up 45% of the population. According to UN forecasts, the population should increase to 39,965 thousand people by 2025.

Population composition.

The vast majority of the population of Saudi Arabia are Arabs (Saudi Arabs - 74.2%, Bedouins - 3.9%, Gulf Arabs - 3%), most of whom have retained their tribal organization. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Avazim, Avamir, Ajman, Ataiba, Bali, Beit Yamani, Beni Atiya, Beni Murra, Beni Sahr, Beni Yas, Wahiba, Davasir, Dakhm, Janaba, Juhaina, Kakhtan, Manasir, manakhil, muahib, mutair, subey, suleiba, shararat, harb, huwaita, khuteim, etc. The suleiba tribe inhabiting northern regions, is considered to be of non-Arab origin and consists, according to some sources, of the descendants of the crusaders captured and enslaved. In total, there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country.

In addition to ethnic Arabs, the country is home to Saudi Arabs of mixed ethnic origin, having Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Indian, and African roots. As a rule, these are descendants of pilgrims who settled in the Hijaz region, or Africans who were imported to Arabia as slaves (before the abolition of slavery in 1962, there were up to 750 thousand slaves in the country). The latter live mainly in the coastal regions of Tihama and Al-Hasa, as well as in oases.

Foreign workers make up approx. 22% of the population and consists of non-Saudi Arabs, people from African and Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines), as well as a small number of Europeans and Americans. Foreign-born Arabs live in cities, oil fields and areas bordering Yemen. Representatives of all other peoples are concentrated in large cities and oil fields, where, as a rule, they form more than half of the total population.

Labor force.

The economically active population is 7 million people, of which 12% are employed in agriculture, 25% in industry, 63% in the service sector. The number of people employed in industry and services has been steadily increasing in recent years. 35% of those employed in the economy are foreign workers (1999); Initially, Arabs from neighboring countries predominated among them, over time they were replaced by people from the South and Southeast Asia. There is no official information on the state of unemployment. However, according to unofficial data, almost 1/3 of the economically active male population (women are practically not involved in the economy) is unemployed (2002). In this regard, Saudi Arabia, since 1996, has been implementing a policy to limit the hiring of foreign labor. Riyadh has developed a 5-year economic development plan designed to encourage the hiring of Saudi citizens. Companies (under threat of penalties) are required to increase their hiring of Saudi workers by at least 5% per year. At the same time, since 1996, the government declared 24 professions closed to foreigners. Today, the most successful replacement of foreigners with Saudi nationals takes place mainly in the public sector, where in recent years the state has hired over 700 thousand Saudis. In 2003, the Saudi Arabian Interior Ministry unveiled a new 10-year plan to reduce the number of foreign workers. Under this plan, the number of foreigners, including immigrant workers and members of their families, should be reduced to 20% of the number of native Saudis by 2013. Thus, according to experts’ forecasts, taking into account the growth of the country’s population, the foreign colony should be reduced by approximately half over a decade.

Urbanization.

Until the early 1960s, the majority of the population were nomads and semi-nomads. Thanks to rapid economic growth, the share of the urban population increased from 23.6% (1970) to 80% (2003). At the end of the 1990s, approx. 95% of the population switched to sedentary image life. Most of the population is concentrated in oases and cities. Average density 12.4 people/sq. km (some cities and oases have a density of more than 1,000 people/sq. km). The most densely populated areas are along the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the northeast of it, where the main oil producing areas are located. The population of the capital, Riyadh (since 1984, diplomatic missions have been located here), is 3,627 thousand (all data for 2003), or 14% of the country's population (the annual population growth in the city between 1974 and 1992 reached 8.2%), mainly These are Saudis, as well as citizens of other Arab, Asian and Western countries. The population of Jeddah, the main port of the Hejaz and the most important business center of Saudi Arabia, is 2,674 thousand people. Until 1984, diplomatic missions of foreign states were located here. In the Hijaz there are also two holy cities of Muslims - Mecca (1541 thousand) and Medina (818 thousand), - accessible only to Muslim pilgrims. In 1998 these cities were visited by approx. 1.13 million pilgrims, including approx. 1 million - from various Muslim countries, as well as North and South America, Europe and Asia. Other large cities: Damman (675 thousand), Taif (633 thousand), Tabuk (382 thousand). Their population consists of representatives of various Arab countries, including the Gulf countries, Indians, as well as people from North America and Europe. Bedouins, who maintain a nomadic lifestyle, inhabit mainly the northern and eastern regions of the country. More than 60% of the entire territory (the deserts of Rub al-Khali, Nefud, Dakhna) does not have a permanent settled population; even nomads do not penetrate into some areas.

Language.

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Standard Arabic, which belongs to the West Semitic group of the Afroasiatic family. One of its dialects is classical Arabic, which, due to its archaic sound, is currently used mainly in a religious context. In everyday life, the Arabian dialect of Arabic (Ammiya) is used, which is closest to the literary Arabic language, which developed from the classical language (el-fuskha). Within the Arabian dialect, there are closely related dialects of Hijaz, Asir, Najd and Al-Hasa. Although the differences between the literary and spoken language are less noticeable here than in others Arab countries, the language of urban residents differs from the dialects of nomads. Among people from other countries, English, Tagalog, Urdu, Hindi, Farsi, Somali, Indonesian, etc. are also common.

Religion.

Saudi Arabia is the center of the Islamic world. The official religion is Islam. According to various estimates, between 85% and 93.3% of Saudis are Sunni; from 3.3% to 15% are Shiites. In the central part of the country, almost the entire population is Hanbalis-Wahhabis (they include more than half of all Sunnis in the country). In the west and southwest, the Shafi'i sense of Sunnism predominates. There are also Hanifites, Malikis, Hanbalis-Salafiyya and Hanbadis-Wahhabis here. A small number of Shia Ismailis and Zaydis live there. A significant Shia group (about a third of the population) lives in the east, in Al Hasa. Christians make up about 3% of the population (according to the American Conference of Catholic Bishops, there are over 500 thousand Catholics living in the country), all other denominations make up 0.4% (as of 1992, unofficially). There is no information on the number of atheists.

STATE STRUCTURE

The first legal documents establishing the general principles of government and governance of the country were adopted in March 1992. According to Basics of the power system, Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy, ruled by the sons and grandsons of the founding king Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Faisal Al Saud. The Holy Quran serves as the constitution of the country, which is governed by Islamic law (Sharia).

The highest authorities include the head of state and the crown prince; Council of Ministers; Advisory Board; High Council of Justice. However, the actual structure of monarchical power in Saudi Arabia is somewhat different from how it is presented in theory. To a large extent, the king's power rests on the Al Saud family, which consists of more than 5 thousand people and forms the basis of the monarchical system in the country. The king rules based on the advice of leading members of the family, in particular his brothers. His relations with religious leaders are built on the same basis. Equally important to the stability of the kingdom is the support of noble families such as the al-Sudairi and Ibn Jiluwi, as well as the religious Al ash-Sheikh family, a subsidiary branch of the Saudi dynasty. These families have remained loyal to the Al Saud clan for almost two centuries.

Central executive power.

The head of state and religious leader of the country (Imam) is the Servant of the Two Holy Mosques, King (Malik) Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (since June 13, 1982), who is also the Prime Minister, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Supreme Judge. Since 1932, the country has been ruled by the Saudi dynasty. The head of state has full executive, legislative and judicial powers. His powers are theoretically limited only by Sharia law and Saudi tradition. The king is called upon to maintain the unity of the royal family, religious leaders (ulema) and other elements of Saudi society.

The mechanism of succession to the throne was officially established only in 1992. The heir to the throne is appointed during his lifetime by the king himself, with the subsequent approval of the ulema. Due to tribal traditions, Saudi Arabia does not have a clear system of succession to the throne. Power usually passes to the eldest in the clan, the one most suitable to perform the functions of the ruler. Since 1995, due to the illness of the monarch, the de facto head of state is the Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud (half-brother of the monarch, heir to the throne from June 13, 1982, regent from January 1 to February 22, 1996). To ensure a conflict-free change of power in the country, in early June 2000, by the decision of King Fahd and Crown Prince Abdullah, the Royal Family Council was formed, which includes 18 of the most influential direct descendants of the founder of the Arabian monarchy, Ibn Saud.

According to the constitution, the king heads the government (in its current form it has existed since 1953) and determines the main directions of its activities. The Council of Ministers combines both executive and legislative functions. All its decisions, which must be compatible with Sharia law, are made by a majority vote and are subject to final approval by royal decree. The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, the First and Second Deputy Prime Ministers, 20 ministers (including the Minister of Defense, who is the Second Deputy Prime Minister), as well as government ministers and advisers appointed as members of the Council of Ministers by decree of the king. The most important ministries are usually headed by representatives of the royal family. Ministers assist the king in carrying out his powers in accordance with the constitution and other laws. The King has the right to dissolve or reorganize the Council of Ministers at any time. Since 1993, the length of service of each minister is limited to a four-year term. On August 2, 1995, King Fahd made the most significant personnel changes in the cabinet in recent decades, which left 16 of the 20 ministers of the current government.

Legislative branch.

There is no legislative body - the king rules the country through decrees. Since December 1993, the Monarch has had an Advisory Council (CC, Majlis al-Shura), consisting of scientists, writers, businessmen, prominent members of the royal family and representing the first public forum in the history of Saudi Arabia. The Constitutional Court is called upon to develop recommendations to the government on issues of socio-economic development of the country, to prepare opinions on various legal acts and international agreements. At least 10 members of the Council have the right of legislative initiative. They can propose a new bill or additions and changes to existing legislation and submit them to the Chairman of the Council. All decisions, reports and recommendations of the Council must be submitted directly to the King and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers for consideration. If the points of view of the two councils coincide, the decision is made with the consent of the king; if the points of view do not coincide, the king has the right to decide which option will be accepted.

According to the 1993 decree, the Advisory Council consisted of 60 members and a chairman appointed by the king for a period of 4 years. In July 1997, the number of the CC increased to 90 members, and in May 2001 - to 120. The Chairman of the Council is Mohammed bin Jubeir (in 1997 he retained his post for a second term). With the expansion, the composition of the Council also changed; in 1997, for the first time, three representatives from the Shiite minority were included in it; in 1999 women were allowed to attend CC meetings. Recently, the importance of the Advisory Council has gradually increased. From the moderate side liberal opposition There are calls to hold general elections to the Constitutional Court.

Judicial system.

The civil and judicial codes are based on Sharia law. Thus, all marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, criminal and other matters are regulated by Islamic regulations. Several secular laws were also passed in 1993. The country's judicial system consists of disciplinary and general courts, which hear simple criminal and civil cases; Shariah or Cassation Court; and the Supreme Court, which reviews and reviews all the most serious cases, and also monitors the activities of other courts. The activities of all courts are based on Islamic law. Religious judges, qadis, preside over the courts. Members of religious courts are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the High Council of Justice, consisting of 12 senior jurists. The King is the highest court of appeal and has the power to issue pardons.

Local authorities.

In accordance with a royal decree in 1993, Saudi Arabia was divided into 13 provinces (emirates). By decree of 1994, the provinces were, in turn, divided into 103 districts. Power in the provinces belongs to governors (emirs) appointed by the king. The most important cities, such as Riyadh, Mecca and Medina, are headed by governors belonging to the royal family. Local affairs are administered by Provincial Councils, whose members are appointed by the King from among the most distinguished families.

In 1975, the kingdom's authorities issued a law on municipal elections, but elected municipalities were never formed. In 2003, the intention to hold the first municipal elections in the history of the kingdom was announced. Half of the seats on the 14 regional councils will be elected, while the other half will be appointed by the Saudi government. Elections to regional councils are seen as a step towards reforms announced by King Fahd in May 2003.

Human rights.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that has refused to recognize some articles of the International Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948. According to the human rights organization Freedom House, Saudi Arabia is one of the nine countries with the worst regime in the field of political and civil rights. Some of the most obvious human rights violations in Saudi Arabia include: mistreatment of prisoners; prohibitions and restrictions in the field of freedom of speech, press, meetings and organizations, religion; systematic discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities, and suppression of workers' rights. The country retains the death penalty; Since the Gulf War in 1991, Saudi Arabia has seen a steady increase in the number of executions. In addition to public executions, arrests and imprisonments of dissidents are widely practiced in the kingdom.

Political parties and movements.

Despite the ban on the activities of political parties and trade unions, there are a number of political, public and religious organizations of various orientations in opposition to the regime.

The left opposition includes a few groups of nationalist and communist orientation, relying mainly on foreign workers and national minorities, among them: Voice of the Vanguard, the Saudi Communist Party, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, the Green Party, the Socialist Labor Party, the Saudi Socialist Front, Union of Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Zones of the Persian Gulf. In recent years, their activity has noticeably decreased, and many groups have disbanded.

The liberal opposition is not organized organizationally. It is represented mainly by businessmen, intellectuals, technocrats and advocates for increased participation of various representatives of society in government, accelerated modernization of the country, political and judicial reforms, the introduction of institutions of Western democracy, reducing the role of conservative religious circles and improving the status of women. The number of supporters of the liberal opposition is small, but in recent years the royal regime, seeking to maintain good relations with the West, has been forced to increasingly listen to its opinion.

The most radical opposition force is the conservative and religious fundamentalist Islamic circles of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion. The Islamist movement arose back in the 1950s as a conglomerate of informal groups, but only finally took shape in the early 1990s. Among the Sunni opposition, three movements stand out: the moderate wing of traditionalist Wahhabism, the militant movement of neo-Wahhabism, and the liberal-oriented movement of supporters of Islamic reforms.

Traditionalists include many ulema, elderly theologians, as well as once powerful tribal sheikhs. In the 1990s, traditionalists were represented by such organizations as the “Group for Imitating the Piety of Ancestors”, “Group for the Preservation of the Koran”, “Monotheists”, “Callers”, etc.

Neo-Wahhabis, according to many experts, rely on unemployed youth, teachers and theological students, as well as former Mujahideen who fought in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and Chechnya. They sharply criticize the government for its actions during the Gulf War, the foreign military presence in the country, the modernization of society along Western lines, and advocate Islamic values. Intelligence services suggest that the most militant circles of neo-Wahhabism are associated with international terrorist organizations (Al-Qaeda, Muslim Brotherhood) and may be behind a number of attacks committed on foreigners in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Moderate Islamists are represented by the Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights (formed in May 1993) and the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia (established in March 1996 as a result of a split in the Committee). Both groups operate primarily in the UK and in their statements combine radical Islamist rhetoric with demands for reforms in the political, social and economic spheres, expansion of freedom of speech and assembly, contacts with Western countries, and respect for human rights.

Shia Islamists represent a religious minority in the Eastern Province and advocate the abolition of all restrictions on Shiites and the freedom to practice their religion. The most radical Shiite groups are considered to be “Saudi Hezbollah” (also known as “Hezbollah Hijaz”, up to 1000 people) and “Islamic Jihad of Hijaz”. More moderate is the Shia Reform Movement, which emerged in the early 1990s on the basis of the Organization of the Islamic Revolution. Since 1991, it has published Al-Jazeera Al-Arabiya in London and The Arabian Monitor in Washington.

Foreign policy.

Saudi Arabia has been a member of the UN and the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1945, a member of the IMF and World Bank since 1957, and a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) since 1960. Since 1948 it has been at war with Israel. Plays a significant and constructive role in the International currency board(IMF), World Bank, Arab and Islamic financial assistance and development institutions. One of the world's largest donors, it provides assistance to a number of Arab, African and Asian countries. Since 1970, the headquarters of the secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, established in 1969, have been located in Jeddah.

Membership in OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries makes it easier to coordinate Saudi oil policy with other oil-exporting governments. As a leading oil exporter, Saudi Arabia has a special interest in maintaining a sustainable and long-term market for its oil resources. All its actions are aimed at stabilizing the global oil market and reducing sharp price fluctuations.

One of the main principles of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is Islamic solidarity. The Saudi government often helps resolve regional crises and supports Israeli-Palestinian peace negotiations. As a member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia advocates the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territories occupied in June 1967; supports a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time condemns the Camp David Accords, which, in their opinion, are not capable of guaranteeing the right of the Palestinians to create their own state and determine the status of Jerusalem. The latest Middle East peace plan was proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah in March 2002 at the annual Arab League summit. In accordance with it, Israel was asked to withdraw all its forces from the territories occupied after 1967, return Palestinian refugees and recognize an independent Palestinian state with its capital in east Jerusalem. In exchange, Israel was guaranteed recognition by all Arab countries and the restoration of “normal relations.” However, as a result of the position taken by a number of Arab countries and Israel, the plan failed.

During the Gulf War (1990–1991), Saudi Arabia played a critical role in building a broad international coalition. The Saudi Arabian government provided coalition forces with water, food and fuel. In total, the country's expenses during the war amounted to $55 billion.

At the same time, the war in the Persian Gulf caused a deterioration in diplomatic relations with a number of Arab states. Only after the war were relations restored to the previous level with Tunisia, Algeria and Libya, which refused to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. During the war and immediately after its end, Saudi Arabia's relations with countries that expressed support for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - Yemen, Jordan and Sudan - remained extremely tense. One manifestation of this policy was the expulsion of over a million Yemeni workers from Saudi Arabia, which further aggravated the existing border conflict. The pro-Iraqi stance of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) leadership also led to a deterioration in its relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries. Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority were only normalized in the late 1990s, at which time the Saudi government's assistance to the Palestinian Authority was resumed. In July 2002, the Saudi Kingdom transferred $46.2 million to the accounts of the Palestinian Authority. Another $15.4 million was allocated by the Saudi Arabian government as free aid to the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in October 2002. This payment was made as part of the decisions Arab League summit in Beirut (27–28 March 2002).

Saudi Arabia became one of three countries that established diplomatic relations with the Afghan Taliban movement in 1997, interrupted in 2001. Since the beginning of the 21st century, especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there have been signs of a cooling of the country's relations with a number of Western countries caused by accusations in promoting international Islamic terrorism.

The country has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. First established with the USSR in 1926. The Soviet mission was withdrawn in 1938; in September 1990, an agreement was reached on the complete normalization of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Saudi Arabia; The embassy in Riyadh has been operating since May 1991.

Territorial conflicts.

In 1987, the demarcation of the border with Iraq in the former neutral zone was completed. In 1996, the neutral zone on the border with Kuwait was divided. In early July 2000, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait agreed to demarcate the maritime border; The Kuwaiti possessions of Karukh and the island of Umm al-Maradim remain the object of dispute. On June 12, 2000, a border agreement was concluded with Yemen, which established part of the border between the two countries. However, much of the border with Yemen is still undefined. Saudi Arabia's border with Qatar was finally established by agreements signed in June 1999 and March 2001. The position and status of the border with the United Arab Emirates is not specified; the current border de facto reflects the 1974 agreement. Similarly, the border with Oman remains undemarcated.

Armed forces.

Since the 1970s, Saudi Arabia has spent enormous amounts of money expanding and modernizing its military. After the Gulf War in 1991, the country's armed forces were further expanded and equipped with the latest weapons, much of which came from the United States. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Saudi Arabia's military budget in 2002 amounted to $18.7 billion, or 11% of GDP. The armed forces consist of ground forces, air and naval forces, air defense forces, the National Guard, and the Ministry of Internal Forces. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the King; direct leadership of the armed forces is exercised by the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff. All command positions are held by members of the ruling family. The total number of regular armed forces is about 126.5 thousand people. (2001). The ground forces (75 thousand people) have 9 armored, 5 mechanized, 1 airborne brigade, 1 regiment of the Royal Guard, 8 artillery divisions. In service there are 1055 tanks, 3105 armored personnel carriers, St. 1000 units of artillery and rocket launchers. The Air Force (20 thousand people) are armed with St. 430 combat aircraft and approx. 100 helicopters. The air defense forces (16 thousand people) include 33 missile divisions. The Navy (15.5 thousand people) consists of two flotillas and is armed with approx. 100 combat and auxiliary ships. The main naval bases are Jeddah and Al-Jubail. In the mid-1950s, the National Guard was also created from tribal militias loyal to the royal family (about 77 thousand, including 20 thousand militias of tribal formations), which, according to Western experts, significantly exceeds regular forces in terms of level of training and weapons. Its task is to ensure security ruling dynasty, protection of oil fields, airfields, ports, as well as suppression of anti-government protests. In addition to the regular armed forces, there is also a Border Guard Corps (10.5 thousand) and coast guard troops (4.5 thousand). Recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment.

ECONOMY

Currently, the basis of the Saudi Arabian economy is free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over major areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proven reserves of crude oil amount to 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export revenues, 75% of government revenues and 35–45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector. In 1992, Saudi Arabia's GDP was equivalent to $112.98 billion, or $6,042 per capita. In 1997, GDP was $146.25 billion, or $7,792 per capita; in 1999 it increased to 191 billion dollars, or 9 thousand dollars per person; in 2001 – up to 241 billion dollars, or 8,460 dollars per person. However, real economic growth lags behind the increase in the number of inhabitants, leading to unemployment and a decrease in per capita income. The share of economic sectors not related to oil production and refining in GDP increased from 46% in 1970 to 67% in 1992 (in 1996 it decreased to 65%).

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin the privatization of electrical companies, which would follow the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has expanded rapidly in recent years. The Saudi Arabian government's main priorities in the near future are to allocate additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, as water shortages and rapid population growth prevent the country from being fully self-sufficient in agricultural products.

Oil industry and its role.

The largest holder of oil concessions and the main oil producer is the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). Since the early 1970s, it has been under the control of the Saudi Arabian government, and before that it was entirely owned by a consortium of American companies. The company received a concession in 1933 and began exporting oil in 1938. The Second World War interrupted the development of the oil industry, which resumed in 1943 with the construction of an oil refinery at the oil port of Ras Tannura. Oil production gradually increased from 2.7 thousand tons/day before 1944 to 33.5 thousand tons/day in 1947 and 68.1 thousand tons/day in 1949. By 1977, daily oil production in Saudi Arabia increased to 1. 25 million tons and remained high throughout the 1980s, until it began to decline as a result of decreased demand for oil on the world market. In 1992, approx. 1.15 million tons/day, with 97% of production coming from ARAMCO. Oil production is also carried out by other, smaller companies, such as the Japanese Arabian Oil Company, operating in coastal waters near the border with Kuwait, and the Getty Oil Company, which produces onshore near the border with Kuwait. In 1996, Saudi Arabia's quota, determined by OPEC, was approx. 1.17 million tons per day. In 2001, average production was 8.6 billion barrels/day (460 billion tons/year). In addition, it uses reserves located in the so-called “neutral zone” on the border with Kuwait, which give it an additional 600 thousand barrels of oil per day. The largest oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, on the coast of the Persian Gulf or on the shelf.

Major oil refineries: Aramco - Ras Tanura (capacity 300 thousand barrels/day), Rabigh (325 thousand barrels/day), Yanbu (190 thousand barrels/day), Riyadh (140 thousand barrels/day), Jeddah ( 42 thousand barrels/day), Aramco-Mobil - Yanbu (332 thousand barrels/day), Petromin/Shell - al-Jubail (292 thousand barrels/day), Arabian Oil Company - Ras al-Khafji (30 thousand . barrels/day).

The most important factor in the development of the oil industry is the close and mutually beneficial relationship that has developed between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO's activities contributed to the influx of qualified personnel into the country and the creation of new jobs for Saudis.

Significant changes in the relationship between oil companies and the government of Saudi Arabia began in 1972. In accordance with the agreement signed by the parties, the government received 25% of ARAMCO's assets. It was established that Saudi Arabia's share would gradually increase to 51% by 1982. However, in 1974 the government accelerated this process and acquired ownership of 60% of ARAMCO shares. In 1976, oil companies promised to transfer all ARAMCO properties to Saudi Arabia. In 1980, all ARAMCO property was transferred to the Saudi Arabian government. In 1984, a citizen of Saudi Arabia became the president of the company for the first time. Since 1980, the government of Saudi Arabia began to determine oil prices and production volumes itself, and oil companies received rights to develop oil fields as government subcontractors.

The growth in oil production was accompanied by a significant increase in revenues from its sales, especially after the quadruple jump in oil prices in 1973–1974, which led to a gigantic increase in government revenues, which increased from $334 million in 1960 to $2.7 billion in 1972, $30 billion in 1974, $33.5 billion in 1976 and $102 billion in 1981. Subsequently, demand for oil on the world market began to decline, and by 1989 Saudi Arabia’s oil export revenues fell to $24 billion The crisis that began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 again raised world oil prices; Accordingly, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports increased in 1991 to almost 43.5 billion dollars. In 1998, as a result of a sharp drop in world oil prices at the beginning of the year, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports amounted to 43.7 billion dollars.

Industry.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). Industrial production growth in 1997 was 1%. In the past, Saudi Arabia's industry was underdeveloped, especially non-oil industries. In 1962, the government General Organization of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (PETROMIN) was created, whose task is to develop the oil and mining industries, as well as the creation of new oil, mining and metallurgical enterprises. In 1975, the Ministry of Industry and Energy was formed, to which responsibility for PETROMIN enterprises not related to oil production and refining was transferred. PETROMIN's largest projects were the steel plant in Jeddah, built in 1968, and the oil refineries in Jeddah and Riyadh, built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. PETROMIN also provided 51% of the funds for the construction of a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Dammam, completed in 1970.

In 1976, the government-owned Saudi Arabian Heavy Industry Corporation (SABIK) was created, a holding company with an initial capital of $2.66 billion. By 1994, SABIC owned 15 large enterprises in Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah, which produced chemicals, plastics, and industrial gas , steel and other metals. Saudi Arabia has well-developed food and glass industries, handicrafts and the building materials industry, in particular cement. In 1996, industrial production amounted to approx. 55% of GDP.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. residents of the Arabian Peninsula mined gold, silver and copper in deposits located approximately 290 km northeast of Jeddah. Currently, these deposits are being developed again, and in 1992 approx. 5 tons of gold.

Electricity production in Saudi Arabia increased from 344 kW in 1970 to 17,049 mW in 1992. To date, approx. 6,000 cities and rural settlements throughout the country. In 1998, electricity production was 19,753 MW, with an annual increase in electricity demand of 4.5% expected over the next two decades. To meet them, electricity production will need to be increased to approximately 59,000 MW.

Agriculture.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to more than 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, production of staple foods increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. Lands suitable for cultivation occupy 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Despite the fact that the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, agriculture in Saudi Arabia, using modern technology and machinery, is a dynamically developing industry. The area of ​​cultivated land increased from 161.8 thousand hectares in 1976 to 3 million hectares in 1993, and Saudi Arabia transformed from a country that imported most of its food into a food exporter. In 1992, agricultural products amounted to $5.06 billion in monetary terms, while the export of wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, vegetables and flowers brought in income of $533 million. The share of the agricultural sector in GDP from 1985 to 1995 increased by 6.0% per year. The country also produces barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice. An important industry is livestock farming, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses.

Long-term hydrological studies, begun in 1965, have revealed significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources operates more than 200 reservoirs with a total capacity of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater daily, thus satisfying 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

The Al Hasa agricultural project alone, completed in 1977, irrigated 12 thousand hectares and provided jobs for 50 thousand people. Other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8 thousand hectares) and the Abha project in the Asirah Mountains, in the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new agricultural development project worth $294 million. The Ministry of Agriculture's budget increased from $395 million in 1997 to $443 million in 1998.

Transport.

Until the 1950s, transport of goods within Saudi Arabia was carried out mainly by camel caravans. Built in 1908, the Hijaz railway (1300 km, including 740 km along the Hijaz) has not functioned since the First World War. To transport pilgrims, road traffic was used along the Najaf (in Iraq) - Hail - Medina highway.

The start of oil production completely changed the country's economy and ensured its rapid growth. The impetus for rapid development was the creation of a network of roads, ports and communications. In the 1970s–1990s, an extensive road network was created that connected vast arid areas located in remote parts of the country. The largest highway crosses the Arabian Peninsula from Dammam on the Persian Gulf through Riyadh and Mecca to Jeddah on the Red Sea. In 1986, construction was completed on a 24-kilometer highway built over a causeway connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. As a result of large-scale construction, the length of paved roads increased from 1,600 km in 1960 to more than 44,104 km of highways and 102,420 km of dirt roads in 1997.

The railway network has expanded significantly. There is one railway connecting Riyadh through the Hofuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf (571 km); in mid. In the 1980s, the railway was extended to the industrial center of Al Jubail, located north of Dammam; in 1972 a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). The total length of railways is 1392 km (2002).

The country has an extensive network of pipelines: the length of crude oil pipelines is 6,400 km, petroleum products – 150 km, gas pipelines – 2,200 km (including liquid natural gas – 1,600 km). A major trans-Arabian oil pipeline connects oil fields in the Persian Gulf with ports in the Red Sea. The main ports in the Persian Gulf are Ras Tanura, Dammam, Al Khobar and Mina Saud; on the Red Sea: Jeddah (through which the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go), Jizan and Yanbu.

Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. The Saudi National Shipping Company has 21 vessels for transporting petroleum products. In total, the maritime merchant fleet consists of 71 vessels with a carrying capacity of 1.53 million tons deadweight (including a number of vessels sailing under foreign flags).

There are three international (in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dhahran) and 206 regional and local airports and aircraft landing sites, as well as five helicopter stations (2002). Aviation fleet - 113 transport and passenger aircraft. Air lines of Saudi Arabian Airlines connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East.

State budget.

Saudi Arabia's budget in 1993–1994 was $46.7 billion, in 1992–1993 – $52.5 billion, and in 1983–1984 – $69.3 billion. Such fluctuations were a consequence of falling export revenues oil, providing 80% of all state revenues. However, in FY 1994, $11.5 billion was allocated to construction and renovation programs and $7.56 billion was allocated to higher education, universities, industrial development, and other development projects such as saltwater improvements. soils and electrification. In 2003, the revenue side of the Saudi Arabian budget was $46 billion, and expenditures - $56.5 billion; in 2000, the budget revenues were $41.9 billion, expenditures - $49.4 billion, in 1997 budget revenues - $43 billion, and expenditures - $48 billion, the budget deficit was $5 billion. Expenditures in the 1998 budget are planned at $47 billion, and revenues - $52 billion. Only Since the end of 1999, rapidly rising oil prices have allowed the country to achieve a budget surplus ($12 billion in 2000). The country's external debt decreased from $28 billion (1998) to $25.9 billion (2003).

Since 1970, five-year development plans have been adopted. The Fifth Five Year Plan (1990–1995) aimed to strengthen the private sector, develop education, health and social welfare; they also provided for an increase in defense spending. The Sixth Five-Year Development Plan (1995–1999) provided for a continuation of the economic policies of the previous period. The main attention is paid to the development of economic activity in sectors of the economy not related to the oil industry, primarily in the private sector, with a special emphasis on industry and agriculture. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1999–2003) focused on economic diversification and strengthening the role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. During 2000–2004, the Saudi government aims to achieve an average annual GNP growth of 3.16%, with an estimated growth of 5.04% in the private sector and 4.01% in non-oil sectors. The government has also set a target of creating 817,300 new job openings for Saudi nationals.

External economic relations

Saudi Arabia reflects its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, particularly Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries. Even after the fall in oil prices in the mid and late 1980s, the country maintained a positive foreign trade balance: if in 1991 imports totaled $29.6 billion and exports totaled $48.5 billion, then in 2001 these figures increased to 39.5 and 71 billion dollars, respectively. Positive balance trade balance as a result, it grew from 18.9 billion dollars (1991) to 31.5 billion dollars (2001).

Saudi Arabia's main imports are industrial equipment, vehicles, weapons, food, construction materials, scientific equipment, chemical products, textiles and clothing. The main flow of imports comes from the USA (16.6%), Japan (10.4%), Great Britain (6.1%), Germany (7.4%), France (5%), Italy (4%) (at 2001). The government has promised to make appropriate changes to trade, investment and tax laws in preparation for joining the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The main export item is oil and petroleum products (90%). In 2001, the main exporting countries were: Japan (15.8%), USA (18.5%), South Korea (10.3%), Singapore (5.4%), India (3.5%). Oil, which provides the main export earnings, is supplied to the USA, Japan and Western Europe. Due to the growth of industrial production, Saudi Arabia began to export petrochemicals, consumer goods and food products. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to $7.57 billion.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; Since 1993, the country has transferred $208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Monetary system.

Since 1928: 1 sovereign = 10 riyal = 110 kersham, since 1952: 1 sovereign = 40 riyal = 440 kersham, since 1960: 1 Saudi riyal = 100 halalam. The functions of the central bank are performed by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Religion.

Religion has always played a dominant role in Saudi society and still determines the way of life of the majority of the population. The majority of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia, including the ruling house of the Saudis, belong to the followers of Wahhabism - one of the movements in Islam, which received its name after the name of a man who lived in the 18th century. reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They call themselves muwahhids, “monotheists,” or simply Muslims. Wahhabism is an ascetic, puritanical movement within the framework of the most strict Hanbali religious-legal school (madhab) in Sunni Islam, in which special attention is paid to the strict implementation of the precepts of Islam. Wahhabis are the guardians of sacred places, under their control the pilgrimage to Mecca takes place. There are also followers of other sects of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia - in Asir, Hijaz and Eastern Arabia. Al-Hasa, in the east of the country, has a significant Shiite population (15%). The Constitution of Saudi Arabia contains a categorical order for citizens of the country to practice Islam. Non-Muslim religions are only allowed among foreign workers. Any public display of belonging to a non-Muslim religion (pectoral crosses, the Bible, etc.), the sale of goods with non-Islamic symbols, as well as public worship are strictly prohibited. Individuals found to be “illegally practicing” their religion may face legal punishment or expulsion from the country. The entire social and cultural life of the country is regulated by Muslim Lunar calendar(lunar hijri), such events as the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), the month-long fast (Ramadan), the festival of breaking the fast (Eid al-Fitr), the festival of sacrifice (id al-adha).

At the head of the religious community is the Council of Ulema, which interprets Muslim laws. Every city has public morality committees that monitor compliance with the rules of conduct. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Ulema Council opposed the introduction of the telephone, radio and automobile into Saudi Arabia on the grounds that such innovations were contrary to Sharia. However, changing conditions, particularly rising prosperity and the arrival of Western technology in Saudi Arabia, led to a compromise between the demands of modern life and the restrictions of Sharia law. Over time the problem was solved. This was formalized by a decree of the Council of Ulema (fatwa), declaring that Western innovations, from airplanes and television to commercial legislation, did not contradict Islam. However, most of the strict Wahhabi rules continue to apply, for example, all women, Arab or European, are prohibited from mixing with men in public places and driving a car.

Lifestyle.

Arab nomads inhabiting desert areas roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional home is tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Sedentary Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of sun-dried bricks, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, have now become rare thanks to government housing policies.

The staple foods of the Arabs are mutton, lamb, chicken and game, seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews cooked with onions and lentils. A lot of fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. A popular drink is coffee. Camel, sheep and goat milk is consumed. Sheep's milk ghee (dahn) is commonly used for cooking.

The status of women.

Men play a dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil over her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her home, she may only leave her face uncovered in front of the men in her family. The women's ("forbidden") half of the house, the harim (hence the word "harem"), is separated from the part where guests are received. Among the Bedouins, women are usually freer; they may appear in society without a veil over their faces and talk with strangers, but they nevertheless occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. Marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered in a religious court. And although romantic love is a perennial theme of Arabic, especially Bedouin, poetry, marriages are usually arranged without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main responsibility of the wife is to care for her husband and meet his needs, as well as raise children. Marriages are generally monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one rather than several wives. The husband can apply to the judge (qadi) at any time to demand a divorce, the only restrictions for him being marriage contract and the relationships between the families concerned. A woman can approach a qadi for a divorce only if there are grounds for doing so, such as mistreatment and meager maintenance by her husband, or sexual neglect.

Healthcare.

The country has a free healthcare system. Thanks to high spending on health care (over 8% of the budget), health care in the kingdom has reached very high levels in recent decades. high level. It applies to almost the entire population of the country - from residents of large cities to Bedouin tribes wandering in the desert. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2, the death rate was 5.79 per 1 thousand people; infant mortality – 47 per 1 thousand newborns. Average duration life - 68 years. Immunization of infants and young children is mandatory. The creation of an epidemic control system in 1986 made it possible to eliminate diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The healthcare structure is mixed. In 1990–1991, there were 163 hospitals (25,835 beds) operating in the country, subordinate to the Ministry of Health. About 1/3 of the medical institutions belonged to other ministries and departments (3,785 beds). In addition, there were 64 private hospitals (6,479 beds). There were 12,959 doctors (544 patients per doctor) and 29,124 paramedical personnel.

Education.

Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory primary education and the creation of secular public schools. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was created and began implementing educational programs that focused on primary education and vocational training, as well as religious education. In the late 1950s, these programs covered secondary and higher education. In 1960, a law was passed on compulsory education for girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls.

For many years, spending on education occupied second place in the budget, and in 1992 this item even moved to first place. In 1995, government spending on education was $12 billion, or 12% of all spending. In 1994, the education system included 7 universities, 83 institutes and 18 thousand schools, in 1996 - 21 thousand schools (290 thousand teachers). In the 1996/1997 academic year, approx. 3.8 million children. The age for entering school is 6 years. Primary school is 6 years old, secondary school consists of two levels: junior high school (3 years) and complete secondary school (3 years). Education for boys and girls is separate. In the early 1990s, girls made up 44% of the 3 million primary and secondary school students and 46% of the total university student population. Education for girls is managed by a special supervisory board, which also oversees educational programs for adult women. Students are provided with textbooks and medical care. Available special department, which runs schools for sick children. In accordance with the Fifth 5-year development plan, for the development technical education and vocational training in such areas as medicine, agriculture, education, etc. $1.6 billion was allocated.

There are 16 universities and 7 universities in the country. Universities are under the authority of the Ministry of Higher Education. These include the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abd al-Aziz in Jeddah (founded in 1967), University. King Faisal (with branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (founded in 1975), Islamic University. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1950, university status since 1974), Umm al-Qura University in Mecca (founded in 1979) and the University. King Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1957). The number of university students in 1996 was 143,787 people, teaching staff - 9,490 people. About 30 thousand students study abroad.

Thanks to government educational programs, the authorities managed to significantly reduce the level of illiteracy among the population. If in 1972 the number of illiterate people reached 80% of the population, then by 2003 it was 21.2% (men - 15.3%, women - 29.2%).

The largest libraries.

National Library (founded in 1968), Saud Library, Riyadh University Library, Mahmudiyya Library, Arif Hikmat Library and Medina University Library.

Culture.

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and determines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influences that other Arab states have experienced. The country lacks literary traditions comparable to those of the Arab countries of the Mediterranean. Perhaps the only famous Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishr can be considered the most famous. The lack of literary tradition in Saudi Arabia is partly compensated by deep-rooted traditions in the field of oral prose and poetry, dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been curtailed by the ban imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. There are few performers of folk music and songs, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are Saudi Arabia's first pop star Abdu Majid-e-Abdallah and the Arabic lute (ud) virtuoso Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban has been introduced on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural ornaments, such as friezes and mosaics, incorporating traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism does not approve of the construction of elaborately decorated mosques, so modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to ancient, aesthetically more interesting ones (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years appears to have been the restoration and decoration of the mosque on the burial site of the Prophet in Medina, and the major expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The severity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; Most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters or public cinemas in the country, and shows and performances are prohibited.

Print, radio broadcasting, television, Internet.

The activities of the Saudi media are the most regulated in the entire Arab world. They are not allowed to criticize the government and the royal family, or question religious institutions. Only since 2002–2003 have there been signs of liberalization of state policy regarding the media. The press and television began to cover topics that were previously considered taboo. Newspapers in Saudi Arabia can only be established by royal decree. 10 daily newspapers and several dozen magazines are published (2003). In Arabic: “Al-Bilyad”, since 1934, circulation 30 thousand copies; Al Jazeera; “An-Nadwa”, since 1958, 35 thousand copies; “Al-Medina al-Munawwara”, since 1937, 55 thousand copies; "Riyadh", since 1964, 140 thousand copies; Arab News. The government news agency is the Saudi Press Agency (SPA), founded in 1970.

Broadcasting has been going on since 1948, with 76 state-controlled radio stations (1998) broadcasting news reports, public speakers, sermons, educational and religious programs. Since 2002, the opposition radio station Voice of Reform, owned by the Movement for Islamic Reforms in Arabia, has also been broadcasting from Europe.

Television has existed since 1965, there are 3 television networks and 117 television stations (1997). All television and radio broadcasting is carried out by the state Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Chairman of the Radio and Television Supervision Authority is the Minister of Culture and Information.

The cellular telephone network has been in existence since 1981; Internet - since the late 1990s, there are 22 Internet service providers (2003), 1,453 thousand registered users (2002). According to unofficial data, 2/3 of Internet users are women. Government censorship and security systems are in place to block access to websites considered offensive to Islamic morality. In total, access to several thousand websites is blocked.

STORY

Since ancient times (2 thousand BC), the territory of the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves “al-Arab” (Arabs). In the 1st millennium BC. in various parts of the peninsula, ancient Arab states began to take shape - the Minaan (before 650 BC), the Sabaean (ca. 750–115 BC), and the Himyarite kingdom (ca. 25 BC – 577 AD .). In the 6th–2nd centuries. BC slaveholding states arose in the north of Arabia (the Nabataean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, etc.). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Maqoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd–5th centuries. Judaism and Christianity spread on the peninsula. Religious communities of Christians and Jews emerge on the coasts of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in Hijaz, Najran and Yemen. At the end of the 5th century. AD In Najd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence spread to a number of neighboring regions, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. Prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of a struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. In mid. 6th century The Arabs, led by the Quraish tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to capture Mecca. In the 7th century. AD In the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The movement of the capital of the caliphates from Medina first to Damascus (661) and then to Baghdad (749) led to the fact that Arabia became a marginal region of a huge state. In the 7th–8th centuries. most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad Caliphate, in the 8th–9th centuries. - Abbasidov. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. The Hijaz, which retained its significance as the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th–12th centuries. remained a vassal of the Fatimids, in the 12th–13th centuries. – Ayyubids, and then – Mamluks (from 1425). In 1517 Western Arabia, including Hejaz and Asir, were subjugated Ottoman Empire. In mid. 16th century The power of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, a region on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From this point until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Nejd, whose population consisted of Bedouins and oasis farmers, enjoyed much greater independence. This entire area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at odds with each other.

The first Saudi state.

The roots of modern Saudi Arabia's polity lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703–1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27–1765), the leader of the Anaiza tribe who inhabited the Diriyya region in central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious-political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Najd emirs to the territory of the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdel Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765–1803), took the title of imam, which meant the unification in his hands of both secular and spiritual power. Relying on the alliance of Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of a “holy war”, demanding that neighboring sheikhdoms and sultanates recognize the Wahhabi teachings and jointly oppose the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 began to conquer neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis captured Al-Hasa, took El-Qatif by storm, where they finally strengthened by 1795. An attempt by the Ottoman Empire to restore its power over Al-Hasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the Red Sea coast, raiding the outskirts of the Hejaz and Yemen and capturing oases located along the borders. By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and its surrounding islands (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subjugated by the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801, Abdel Aziz's armies invaded Iraq and sacked the Shiite holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4 thousand townspeople and taking treasures, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, but outside the Arabian Peninsula, al-Wahhab's teachings did not find support among the local population. The destruction of cities in Iraq turned the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ed-Diriya mosque. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdul Aziz (1803–1814), the Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subjugated.

From the end of the 18th century. the increasing frequency of Wahhabi raids began to increasingly worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire. With the capture of the Hijaz by the Wahhabis, Saudi power extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud received the title “Khadim al-Haramayn” (“servant of the holy cities”), which gave him the opportunity to claim leadership in the Muslim world. The loss of the Hejaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy proclaimed a fatwa, an official religious edict, outlawing al-Wahhab's followers. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and Mecca, Taif and Jeddah in January of the following year. They restored the annual pilgrimage to holy sites, banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hejaz to the Hashemites. After Saud's death in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdul Aziz became the emir of Najd. At the beginning of 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabi forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hejaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hejaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. In the spring of 1815 peace was signed. Under the terms of the treaty, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to ensure the safety of the Hajj and return treasures stolen by Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraydah and Unayzah. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, having enlisted the support of most tribes, invaded Najd at the beginning of 1818 and besieged Ed-Diriya in April 1818. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The Last Ruler Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Al-Diriyah was destroyed. In all the cities of Najd, fortifications were torn down and Egyptian garrisons were installed. In 1819, the entire territory that previously belonged to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

Second Saudi state.

However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The dissatisfaction of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ed-Diriya led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, the Wahhabis managed to recover from defeat a year later and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822–1834), the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and Abdallah's cousin, who returned from exile, restore the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, the Turks recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis died from hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. Egyptian garrisons remained in Qasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the rebellious Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis by 1830 again captured the coast of Al-Hasa and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay them tribute. Three years later, they subjugated the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of Al-Qatif, including part of the territory of Oman and Muscat. Only Hijaz remained under Egyptian control, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831 they supported the claim to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, Turki's cousin. The country began a long period of struggle for power. In 1834, Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took possession of Riyadh, killed Turki and sat in his place. However, a month later, Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Nejd (1834–1838, 1843–1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for the new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, the Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and a year later captured Riyadh; Faisal was captured and sent to Cairo, where he remained until 1843. In his place was Khalid I ibn Saud (1838–1842), the son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was taken advantage of by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with Khalid’s pro-Egyptian course. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Nejd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who was at that moment in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign also turned out to be short-lived. In 1843 he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal managed to restore the virtually collapsed emirate. Over the next three decades, Wahhabi Najd again began to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851–1852, 1859) attempted to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial Coast and the interior of Oman. For a brief moment, the Saudis' possessions again extended over a large area from Jabal Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance to the Persian Gulf coast was stopped only by British intervention. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, vassal tribes often fought among themselves and rebelled.

After the death of Faisal (1865), inter-tribal struggle was supplemented by dynastic strife. A fierce internecine struggle for the “senior table” broke out between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Najd between his three sons. In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865–1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871–1875). Over the next five years, the throne changed hands at least 7 times. Each side created its own groups, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was disrupted; tribal associations were no longer subordinate to the central government. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a short period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875–1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarahman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the backdrop of this struggle, the Saudis found themselves overshadowed by the rival Rashidid dynasty, which ruled the emirate of Jabal Shammar in 1835. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, the Shammar emir Muhammad ibn Rashid (1869–1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic feuds in the North of Arabia and unite Jabal Shammar and Qasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and, with their help, began to fight the emirs from the House of Saudis. In 1887 Abdullah III, in once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. That same year, Rashidid troops took Riyadh, installing their own governor in the city. Finding themselves virtually hostages in Hail, representatives of the Saudi dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay him tribute. In 1889, Abdullah, who had been appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdullah, however, died that same year; he was replaced by Abdarakhman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Nejd. In the Battle of El-Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarahman and his family fled to Al-Hasa and then to Kuwait, where they found refuge with the local ruler. Rashidid governors and representatives were appointed to the captured areas of Riyadh and Qasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabal Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashid emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the education of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as Ibn Saud), who returned from exile in 1901 and began a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait Mubarak, and a small detachment of his supporters captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Najd and gain support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained control over most of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to briefly go on the defensive, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. Ibn Saud's domains nominally became a district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906, their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897–1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the Saudis' rights to Najd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud sought to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible positions and the involvement of the ulema in solving state problems. The Bedouin tribes, which retained a tribal organization and did not recognize the state structure, remained unstable elements that interfered with the unity of Arabia. In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. For this purpose, a military-religious brotherhood was founded in 1912 Ikhwan (Arab."brothers") All Bedouin tribes and oases that refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam began to be viewed as enemies of Najd. The Ikhwan were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called upon to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contact with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). In each Ikhwan community, a mosque was erected, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwan themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 similar settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people, ready at the first call of Ibn Saud to go to war with the “infidels.”

With the help of the Ikhwans, Ibn Saud established full control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Hasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire in May 1914. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Hasa as the possession of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the signing of an agreement in Darin on December 26, 1915 About friendship and alliance with the government of British India. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Najd, Qasim and Al-Hasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with it, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, and also to start a war again against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received significant military and financial assistance (in the amount of 60 pounds sterling per year). Despite the agreement, the Najdi emirate never took part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, an agreement was reached on October 24, 1915, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In return, Britain recognized the independence of the future Hashemite Arab state within its “natural borders” (parts of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of British protectorates and the territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement, in June 1916, detachments of Hejaz tribes led by Hussein's son Faisal and British Colonel T.E. Lawrence rebelled. By accepting the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hijaz from the Ottoman Empire. Taking advantage of diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later accepted the title of “king of all Arabs.” However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hejaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hijaz of the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, troops under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Truce of Mudros concluded on October 30, 1918, the dominance of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separation of the Hejaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turab, located on the border between Hejaz and Najd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no forces left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; The emirate was declared a protectorate of Najd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, the city of Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the attacks of the Ikhwans. With the defeat of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, the following year, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the Saudi dominions. On August 22, 1921, Ibn Saud was proclaimed Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed Al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his power throughout northern Arabia.

Encouraged by their successes, the Ikhwan continued to advance north, invading the border areas of Iraq, Kuwait and Transjordan. Not wanting the Saudis to gain strength, Great Britain supported Hussein’s sons – King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated, signing the so-called on May 5, 1922 in Uqair. the “Agreement of Muhammar” on border demarcation with Iraq and Kuwait; Neutral zones were created in disputed areas. A conference convened the following year by the British government to settle the disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Najd and Hejaz ended in vain. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, the Saudi possessions doubled.

King Hussein's acceptance of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Najd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of deviating from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as caliph and convened a conference of ulema, at which a decision was made on war against the Hijaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwan invaded the Hijaz and captured Mecca in October. Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabi offensive continued the following year. Territorial concessions to Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the issue of Palestine, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over the Hijaz with relative ease. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated the throne. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed King of Hejaz and Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state received the name “Kingdom of Hejaz, Sultanate of Najd and annexed regions”). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and establish diplomatic and trade relations with it. The Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within a unified state; the son of Ibn Saud was appointed his viceroy, under whom a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of “eminent citizens” of Mecca. The meeting considered bills and other issues that the governor put before it, but all its decisions were of a recommendatory nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed king of Hejaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name “Kingdom of Hejaz and Najd and the annexed regions”). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of the Hejaz-Nejd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the “special relationship” of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (H. Clayton Treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were collected “in kind”). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took measures to normalize relations with Western powers and their allies in Arab countries. However, on this path, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition in the form of the Ikhwans. They regarded the modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, the telegraph, the sending of Saud’s son Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel farming caused by the import of cars has further increased discontent among the Bedouins.

By 1926 the Ikhwan had become uncontrollable. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, billed as part of the fight against the "infidels", became a serious diplomatic problem for Najd and Hejaz. In response to renewed Ikhwan raids on the Iraqi border areas, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after British aircraft bombed Ibn Saud's troops did hostilities between the two states cease. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former Emir of Hijaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashemite dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919–1930).

In 1928, Ikhwan leaders, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they fought, openly challenged the authority of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly suppress the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of the Najd traders forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwan (1929). Ibn Saud's actions were approved by the Council of Ulema, which believed that only the king has the right to declare a “holy war” (jihad) and rule the state. After receiving religious blessings from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel groups. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British on Kuwaiti territory and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwan, the tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebel sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage towards the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia 1932–1953.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was intended not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and put an end to Hejaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of an Arabian centralized state. Throughout the subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not pose any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the kingdom's external relations developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance alienated Saudi Arabia from most Muslim governments, which considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control the Wahhabis established over the holy cities and the hajj.

Border problems persisted in many places, especially in the south of the country. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hassan Idrisi, who had renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud in 1930, rebelled against Saudi Arabia. His speech was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, an armed clash occurred between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi troops. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. Hostilities ceased after the signing of the Treaty of Taif (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the Yemeni government of the inclusion of Asir, Jizan and part of Najran. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) in 1933. Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden - ended in failure.

Despite the mutual animosity that existed between the Saudi and Hashemite dynasties, a treaty with Transjordan was signed in 1933, ending years of intense hostility between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps towards normalizing relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was concluded with Iraq. That same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt, broken in 1926, were restored.

In May 1933, due to a decrease in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL). In March 1938, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOK, a subsidiary of Standard Oil of California) discovered oil in Al-Has. Under these conditions, KASOK achieved in May 1939 a concession for oil exploration and production in a large part of the country (industrial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented full-scale development of the Al Hasa oil fields, but Ibn Saud's loss of income was partially compensated by British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral almost until its end (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in Saudi Arabia. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the Lend-Lease law to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began construction of a trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Saida. At the same time, the Saudi government allowed the construction of a large American air base in Dhahran, which was necessary for the United States for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on a US monopoly on the development of Saudi fields.

The significant increase in oil production at the end of the war contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945, the first strike occurred at the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 KASOC) enterprises. The company's board was forced to satisfy the basic demands of the workers (increasing wages, reducing working hours and providing annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946–1947, the government adopted a labor law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry became the reason for the formation of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, etc. were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement “on mutual defense and mutual assistance” was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build a military air base in Dhahran (in Al-Has), where the headquarters of the ARAMCO company was located. Also in 1951, a new concession agreement with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of “equal distribution of profits”, transferring half of all its oil revenues to the kingdom.

Relying on significantly increased resources, Ibn Saud again put forward territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO search parties began to conduct survey work. After unsuccessful negotiations with Great Britain, Saudi Arabian military forces occupied the Al-Buraimi oasis, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saud.

The full scale of the changes caused by the huge revenues from oil exports appeared already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdul Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers was established, headed by Saud. That same month, the government suppressed a major strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king issued laws prohibiting strikes and demonstrations and providing for the most severe punishments (including the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transport company, but ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Saudi Arabia's relations with a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was a consequence of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostility towards it from Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the behests of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the Middle East Cooperation Organization (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia entered into an agreement on a defensive alliance with Egypt and Syria. That same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the Buraimi oasis, which had been seized by Saudi Arabian police in 1952. Saudi Arabia's attempt to find support at the UN was unsuccessful. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed in Jeddah with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia took the side of Egypt, providing a loan of $10 million, and sent its troops to Jordan. On November 6, 1956, Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Great Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.

In 1956, a strike by Arab workers at ARAMCO enterprises and student unrest in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

A turn in Saudi foreign policy began in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq in March 1957. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation of a new state by Egypt and Syria - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of involvement in a conspiracy to overthrow the Syrian government and in preparing an assassination attempt on the President of Egypt. Also in 1958, relations with Iraq were practically interrupted.

Saud's huge expenses for personal needs, maintenance of the court, and bribery of tribal leaders significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite annual oil revenues, the country's debt grew to $300 million by 1958, and the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Ineffective management of the kingdom's finances and inconsistent domestic and foreign policies, Saud's systematic interference in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led to a crisis in 1958 public administration. Under pressure from members of the royal family, Saud was forced in March 1958 to transfer full executive and legislative powers to the prime minister, who appointed his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, reform of the state apparatus began. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister; the king retained only the right to sign decrees and use a veto. At the same time, the government established financial control over all income of the kingdom, and the expenses of the royal court were significantly reduced. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the national currency and reduce the state's internal debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on the tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded royals led by Prince Talal ibn Abdulaziz, Saud regained direct control of the government in December 1960 and again assumed the post of prime minister. Along with Saud's sons, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations emerged advocating the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country’s wealth in the interests of the entire population: “Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia”, “ Liberal Party", "Reform Party", "National Reform Front". However, the government was unable to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of conservative traditionalist policies, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, along with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon and then to Egypt. In the same year, in Cairo, he formed the National Liberation Front of Saudi Arabia, which advocated carrying out radical socialist reforms in the country and establishing a republic. Talal's flight, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962 led to the severance of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

Over the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war in Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the deposed Imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an Egyptian attack, announced the beginning of general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria dates back to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal.

In October 1962, due to the worsening economic situation in the country, the cabinet of ministers was again headed by Prince Faisal. He carried out a number of reforms in the economy, social sphere and education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, issued laws protecting the positions of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, and exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Directorate of Petroleum and Mining Resources) was created to control the activities of foreign companies, the production, transportation and marketing of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. It was planned to carry out other large-scale reforms in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, including representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were harshly suppressed. In 1963–1964, anti-government protests in Hail and Najd were suppressed. In 1964, conspiracies in the Saudi army were discovered, causing new repressions against “unreliable elements.” Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces fighting the war in North Yemen meant that the king's personal expenses had to be reduced. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the council of ulema, the king's powers and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud a nominal ruler). Saud, who regarded this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to gain support from influential circles in order to regain power, but was unsuccessful. On November 2, 1964, Saud was removed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. On November 4, 1964, Saud signed his abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision ended a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces within the country. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid bin Abdulaziz al-Saud, as the new heir.

Faisal declared his priority task to be the modernization of the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and nation from potential internal and external threats that could hinder the development of the kingdom. Carefully but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health care systems developed, and national television appeared. After the death of the Grand Mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (the Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulema, the Supreme Council of Kadi, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision Making (Fatwas), Propaganda and Leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. That same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the Abu Saafa offshore field. In October 1968, a similar agreement on the continental shelf was signed with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni warring parties, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military intervention in the affairs of the YAR. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt has accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of Yemen's ousted imam and announced the suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked bases of Yemeni monarchists in southern Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all property owned by Saudi Arabia in Egypt. Saudi Arabia itself has seen a number of terrorist attacks targeting the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30 thousand people.

Any sympathies that Faisal might have felt for King Hussein of Jordan as a fellow monarch and an opponent of all revolutions, Marxism and republicanism, were overshadowed by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. However, in August 1965, the 40-year dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

The Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the Third Arab-Israeli War (Six Day War, 1967), during which the Saudi Arabian government declared its support for Egypt and sent its own to Jordan. military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, Faisal's government resorted to economic pressure: an embargo was declared on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum Conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya decided to annually allocate 135 million pounds to the “victim states of aggression” (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the embargo on oil exports was lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in YAR continued until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat – the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRY). King Faisal provided support to South Yemeni opposition groups who fled to YAR and Saudi Arabia after 1967. At the end of 1969, armed clashes broke out between PRSY and Saudi Arabia over the Al-Wadeyah oasis. The reason for the escalation of the crisis was the supposed oil fields and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, the authorities prevented a coup attempt prepared by Air Force officers; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and benefits eased discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite riots again occurred in Qatif, which were so serious that the city was blocked for a month.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972 increased Faisal's fears and pushed him to try to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat."

New disputes with neighbors were caused by the formation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971. Having made the solution to the Buraimi issue a condition for its recognition, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, was it possible to resolve most of the issues regarding the Al-Buraimi oasis. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

During the Arab-Israeli War of 1973, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided Egypt and Syria with free financial assistance, reduced oil production and supplies to countries that supported Israel in October–December, and established a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands, in order to force them to change their policies in the Arab world. Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economies of Arab oil-producing states. With the signing of the 1974 armistice agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) of US President Richard M. Nixon, Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the rise in world oil prices.

Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975–1982).

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who had returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared insane and sentenced to death by beheading. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdul Aziz al-Saud (1913–1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's poor health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the kingdom's role in regional politics and international economic and financial affairs has increased. The agreement concluded in 1977 between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt concluded in 1978–1979 and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia was influenced by the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978–1979. In 1978, large anti-government protests occurred again in Qatif, accompanied by arrests and executions. Tensions in Saudi society were exposed in November 1979, when armed Muslim oppositionists led by Juhayman al-Otaibi seized the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, apostasy from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi troops after two weeks of fighting in which more than 300 people were killed. The seizure of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new protests by Shiite dissidents, which were also suppressed by troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced plans in early 1980 to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was not formed until 1993, and to modernize governance in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection to its allies, the United States in 1981 agreed to sell Saudi Arabia several AWACS airborne surveillance systems, which caused a negative reaction in Israel, which feared an upset of the military balance in the Middle East. That same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the creation of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf countries.

On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the Saudi Arabian government began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, and primarily in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp increase in oil export revenues - between 1973 and 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits grew from $4.3 billion to $34.5 billion.

Modern Saudi Arabia.

In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named crown prince and first deputy prime minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al-Saud (b. 1928), Minister of Defense and Aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy faced serious problems. The decline in global oil demand and prices that began in 1981 led to a reduction in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports decreased from $101 billion to $22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also decreased. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions, fueled by the tense foreign policy situation in the region.

Throughout the Iran-Iraq War, during which Saudi Arabia supported the Iraqi government economically and politically, followers of Ayatollah Khomeini repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual Hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tight security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that occurred in Mecca in March 1987, the country's government decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people per year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25 thousand Iranian pilgrims tried to block the entrance to the Haram mosque (Beit Ullah), engaging in battle with security forces. More than 400 people died as a result of the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the death of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of orchestrating the insurgency in support of its demand for extraterritoriality in Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to sever diplomatic relations with Iran. Numerous terrorist attacks have been carried out against Saudi agencies abroad, most notably the offices of Saudi Arabia's national airline. The Shia groups “Party of God in the Hejaz”, “Faithful Soldiers” and “Generation of Arab Wrath” took responsibility for the murders of Saudi diplomats. Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of involvement in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for carrying out terrorist attacks. During 1988–1991, Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. Normalization of relations with Iran occurred after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115 thousand Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in an underground tunnel that connects Mecca to one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Having completed the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began concentrating on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia mobilized and sought military assistance from the United States. Fahd's government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of American and allied military forces on Saudi territory. At the same time, the country hosted approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, in order to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia repeatedly increased its own oil production. King Fahd personally played a huge role during the Gulf War, using his influence to convince many Arab states to join the anti-Iraqi coalition. During the Gulf War (1991), Saudi Arabia was repeatedly shelled by Iraq. At the end of January 1991, Iraqi units captured the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle against enemy forces in the history of the country. Saudi forces participated in other military operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.

After the Gulf War, the Saudi Arabian government came under intense pressure from Islamic radicals who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western, especially American, troops from the holy land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for greater government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. These actions were followed by the creation in May 1993 of the “Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights.” However, the government soon banned this organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to begin political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted (“Fundamentals of the system of power”, “Regulations on the Advisory Council” and “System of the territorial structure”), which established the general principles of government and governance of the country. In addition to them, in September 1993, the king adopted the “Act of Establishment of the Advisory Council,” according to which members of the Advisory Council were appointed and its powers were clarified. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Council took place. In the same year, reform of the Council of Ministers and administrative reform were announced. According to the royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. Also in 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces were in turn divided into 103 districts.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Council of Ulema, an advisory body of extremely conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs, consisting of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by the Minister of Defense Sultan), was formed, as well as the Council for Islamic Queries and Guidance (led by Minister of Islamic Affairs Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq seriously affected the country's economy. Economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the United States insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for American expenses during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for financial losses. Budget deficits and falling oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and reduce the kingdom's foreign investments. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise oil prices in March 1994.

War against terrorism.

However, attempts at structural reforms have failed to resolve the contradictions that have simmered in Saudi society. Coalition troops withdrew from Saudi Arabia at the end of 1991; About 6 thousand American military personnel remained in the country. Their stay on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens occurred in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked near the Saudi Arabian National Guard Program Office building; 7 people were killed and 42 wounded. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the bombing, a new attack followed. On June 25, 1996, a fuel tanker was exploded near a US military base in Dhahran. The explosion killed 19 American troops and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Movement for Islamic Change in the Arab Peninsula - Jihad Wing, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Gulf Tigers and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the government has condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have voiced their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist attack and were imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional security measures for American facilities in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were citizens of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use American military bases located on its territory to carry out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, debates arose about the role of the religious clergy, some of whose representatives spoke from openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not correspond to the norms of Islam. The government has frozen the accounts of a number of individuals and entities, including some Saudi charitable foundations. Information provided by Saudi intelligence helped dismantle 50 companies in 25 countries through which the international terrorist network of Al-Qaeda was financed.

American pressure on Saudi Arabia increased in August 2002, when about 3 thousand relatives of victims of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 filed a lawsuit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic funds and members of the royal family of Saudi Arabia. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, it was alleged that Saudi Arabia was colluding with terrorists. All accusations from the American side were rejected by the Saudi authorities; In protest of the prosecution, some Saudi investors have threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the United States. In November 2002, the US CIA distributed among bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi entrepreneurs whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network of Al-Qaeda. This comes amid demands from a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who carried out attacks on the US on September 11, 2001. Meanwhile, within the US administration itself, there appeared to be no consensus on how much pressure should be applied to Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, US Secretary of State Colin Powell stressed that the United States must be careful not to allow “a breakdown in relations with a country that has for many years been good partner USA and still remains America’s strategic partner.”

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of supporters of reform were becoming increasingly louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding democratization of political life, freedom of speech, judicial independence, constitutional revision, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council and the creation of civil institutions. Amid worsening relations with the United States, the Saudi Arabian government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, it was announced that local elections would be held and that two human rights organizations would be created (one under the patronage of the government, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. That same year, the country's first human rights conference was held in Riyadh, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The Iraq War (2003) caused deep divisions in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's position regarding US plans to overthrow the regime of Saddam Hussein was irreconcilable. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located on the territory of the kingdom to launch attacks on Iraq, even if these attacks were authorized by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for war, the Saudi Arabian government made repeated attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, at the beginning of 2003, Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the Iraq War, the Saudi Arabian government expressed its support to the United States by allowing coalition forces to use American airstrips and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in the conference on the restoration of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $1 billion for the restoration of the neighboring state (500 million will be represented by project financing, and another 500 million - commodity export).

In April 2003, the United States announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, since their presence was no longer needed with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong irritating factor that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the attacks of September 11, 2001, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence American troops in the homeland of the shrines of Islam, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On May 12, 2003, in Riyadh, suicide bombers carried out four attacks on a complex of buildings housing foreigners; 34 people were killed and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8-9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers organized a new attack. During it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 were injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. Al-Qaeda is believed to have been behind all the attacks. The US and other countries have again questioned Saudi Arabia's commitment to fighting terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on the issue of Saudi Arabia's financing of terrorist organizations and the harboring of government officials related to the attacks of September 11, 2001. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of suspects in 2002 terrorist activities, the country, according to international experts, still remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

On August 1, 2005, King Fahd of Saudi Arabia died. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, who died in January 2015, became king.

Abdullah carried out a number of reforms in the country, in particular, he created the Supreme Court - the guarantor of the Constitution of Saudi Arabia; increased the composition of the Majlis (Advisory Council) from 81 to 150 deputies, where for the first time a woman occupied the high government post of Deputy Minister of Education for Women;
opened the University of Science and Technology with joint education of boys and girls; prohibited members of the large royal family from using the state treasury; implemented a government scholarship program for young people to study at Western universities; became the first Saudi monarch to visit the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

He was succeeded by the twenty-fifth son of the country's first monarch, King Abdulazizi, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz al-Saud.

Kirill Limanov

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Vasiliev A.M., Voblikov D.R. Saudi Arabia. - In the book: Recent history of Arab Asian countries. M., 1985
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Honeyman S. Saudi Arabia (Country Fact Files). Library Binding, 1995
David E. Long. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. University Press of Florida, 1997
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The largest state in the Arabian Peninsula is Saudi Arabia. By type of device it is a kingdom. The country shares its borders in the north with Kuwait, Iraq and Jordan, in the east with the United Arab Emirates and Qatar, in the southeast with Oman and in the south with Yemen. The water boundaries run along the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. It should be noted that the country is not characterized by a precisely delineated territory.

Saudi Arabia is often associated with mosques, the main ones being in Mecca and Medina. These are the shrines of Islam.

The main wealth of the country is a huge number of oil fields. Export of black gold has become a dominant position in the state's economy. This industry accounts for 75% of the total gross product.

Saudi Arabia is inhabited by 28.68 million inhabitants, of which 90% are Arabs, the rest are Asians and East Africans. Islam became the predominant religion. In the country it is recognized as the state form of religion. Popularization of other faiths is prohibited here. For visiting foreigners, non-Muslims, visiting the main shrines is prohibited. The observance of traditions is monitored by the local religious police service - muttawa.

State language- Arabic, and the currency is the Saudi Riyal. It is equal to 100 halalas. The exchange rate is approximately 1 euro to 4.75 rials.

Saudi Arabia - capital and major cities

The capital of Saudi Arabia is Riyadh. Its population is 4.87 million people. This is a huge city whose name means “place of trees and gardens.” There really is a lot of greenery here.

Previously, nomadic Arabs lived in these territories. But by the 18th century a Wahhabi center had formed. Neighboring lands were united around it. This is how a state with its capital Riyadh appeared.

The city's population began to grow at a fast pace after the 1950s. Oil revenues have transformed this place into a modern, developed metropolis with luxurious buildings. There are a lot of skyscrapers here, and the development and implementation of grandiose projects is considered the norm of life in the capital city.

The tallest building in the capital, and throughout the country, is the Burj al-Mamlak building. Now the construction of a huge metro has begun here, which will be second after the metro in Mecca.

A peculiarity of Saudi Arabia is the concentration of the bulk of the population in cities. In addition to the capital, the cities of Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Dammam, Haftji and others are characterized by large numbers.

Saudi Arabia - holidays and tours

In first place among the types of tourism in this country are visits for the purpose of worshiping shrines. Pilgrims have become the main source of income from the tourism business. Millions of believers come to the “land of two mosques” every year.

In addition to religious tourism, Saudi Arabia attracts the opportunity to get acquainted with the magnificent cultural values ​​that have been preserved and come down to us through many centuries.

Traditional is beach holiday on the sea and bay coast. The hot sun all year round gives tourists the opportunity to soak up the golden sand and splash in the warm waters.

Visiting businessmen also make up a significant part of the country's guests. Concluding business contracts with local firms is an excellent opportunity for business development.

Saudi Arabia - attractions

Guests of the country are definitely recommended to visit the Riyadh Museum. Free entry is open here. There are exhibitions here that introduce tourists to the culture and traditions of Saudi Arabia. Here you get special access to view others historical monuments countries.

In the city of Diraya there are interesting excavations of mosques and palaces.

The city of Jeddah, located on the Red Sea, is the main port of the country. It is also the most powerful industrial center of the state. It received the nickname "city of statues and markets." The magnificent fountain, 312 meters high, became the main attraction.

There are 140 mosques in the country, and each of them is of cultural and national value. They are unique in their external outlines, so they are all unique.

Mecca and Medina are the spiritual capitals of Islam. Millions of believers gather here for the Hajj; access is strictly prohibited to representatives of other faiths.

Saudi Arabia - weather (climate)

The main part of the country's territory is occupied by deserts and semi-deserts. Accordingly, the climate here is arid and hot. On the Arabian Peninsula, summer temperatures are constantly around +50 degrees. Snow falls only in mountainous areas, but not every year.

The coldest winter month- January. At this time, the average temperature is approximately +15 degrees mountainous areas, and in deserts - +30. But at night there can be a sharp cooling even in the desert, then the thermometer will stop near 0 degrees. This is explained physical characteristics sand, which is able to instantly release the heat received during the day.

There is very little precipitation. During the year their number is only 100mm. Rains are only possible at the end of winter or early spring.

Weather in Saudi Arabia now:

Saudi Arabia - cuisine

The cuisine of this country was formed under the influence of historical features, as well as natural and climatic conditions. Here, as in all Arab countries, traditions are sacredly respected. Products used for cooking are common to all Muslims. Even minor differences, which are due to ethnic diversity, relate mainly to minor aspects of cooking: the addition of spices or seafood.

Muslims do not eat pork at all. That's why they cook beef, fish, poultry and eggs here. A favorite dish is fried meat, cooked on coals or in a frying pan with the addition of a large amount of vegetable oil.

A traditional dish is meat on a spit (“kultra”). Most often it is lamb or poultry. The kebab here is called “tika”. Shawarma (“shwarma”) is often prepared. And “kebab” - marinated shish kebab made from beef or lamb - will not leave any gourmet indifferent. Moreover, there are about a hundred options for preparing kebab, and each of them is a work of culinary art.

In general, they really love meat here. It is prepared whole carcasses, pieces or chopped. Pilaf (“maklyube”) is one of the favorite dishes of local cuisine.

Vegetables served with meat include eggplants, peppers, and zucchini. Popular meat soups. They are prepared very thick, and the main ingredient is beans.

Cooking various types of poultry is widespread. It is stewed with the addition of tomato paste or sauce. There are many different recipes for cooking duck, turkey, chicken, and quail. They are stuffed with rice or vegetables, baked or grilled.

Rice - main view side dish It is also mandatory to have a salad of fresh herbs on the dining table.

Oriental cuisine cannot do without spices. Onions, garlic, spices are the components that give each dish taste and aroma.

Oriental sweets (dessert) are known to everyone. Turkish delight, halva, candied fruits – these delicacies are loved not only by the local population, but also by sweet tooths all over the world.

Coffee has become a traditional drink for conversation. It is prepared in a special way and consumed in miniature cups. Since the local drink is very strong, it is better for tourists who are not accustomed to it to limit its consumption.

Saudi Arabia - interesting facts

In Saudi Arabia, the norms of behavior are completely different from Western traditions.

There is a disdainful attitude towards foreign mercenaries here. People who work for hire are considered slaves. It is permissible to involve them in the most difficult and dirty types of work. Even assault is allowed. The owner will not be condemned if he physically punishes a negligent performer who came from another state.

Polygamy is the norm here. Marriage with minor children is as natural as a regular marriage. There is no age limit for marriage in this state. The daughter's fate is decided by her parents, regardless of her personal desires. The Prophet Muhammad himself was engaged to a 6-year-old girl, Aisha. Therefore, Muslims have someone to follow such an example from.

A woman in Saudi Arabia has absolutely no rights. Domestic violence is common. It is extremely difficult to prove the fact of beating by a husband, so most often such conflicts go unnoticed by the authorities, even if the woman writes a statement of complaint.

Saudi Arabia - visa application

To travel to Saudi Arabia you must obtain a visa. The visa types are as follows:
Working,
Student,
Transit,
Business,
Guestbook,
Group (for pilgrims).

Any tour is organized by an accredited company. Tourist visas to this country not provided.

The following documents must be submitted to the Visa Application Center:
International passport and civil passport,
Application form (filled out in English and Russian),
Photos,
Tickets, including hotel reservations,
For women - a copy of the marriage certificate or proof of relationship with the man accompanying her on the trip.

The visa fee is 56 US dollars.

Saudi Arabia - embassy

In Moscow, the Embassy of Saudi Arabia is located on 3rd Neapolimovsky Lane, building 3. Tel.: (+7 095) 245-3491.