Introduction.

Ethics is the science of morality. It describes morality, explains morality, and “teaches” morality. And there are a number of difficulties along this path.
Firstly, why describe morality if everyone already knows what it is? Everyone imagines themselves to be experts and judges of morals. So ethics seems doomed to communicate something generally known, unless in a clarified and systematized form.
Secondly, ethics “teaches” morality, i.e. communicates not abstract, but practical knowledge that must be used before you truly understand it. This is knowledge that motivates action. However, no one likes lectures. The right to “read morality” is given only to people with impeccable personal lives, with unconditional moral authority, such as, for example, L.N. had for his contemporaries. Tolstoy. But all the preachers over thousands of years have not persuaded humanity to act according to their conscience. In general, no matter how much you say “halva”, your mouth will not become sweet; Talking about goodness does not improve morals. To the great sorrow of all moralists, it turns out that morality cannot be taught. But you can learn. You can develop a moral position yourself by studying the judgments of sages, the words and actions of people. Ethics provides every thinking person with his own methods and means of argumentation.
Third, it is difficult to explain anything in morality satisfactorily. Is it possible to accurately determine the reasons for the existence of injustice, the reasons why nobility is ridiculed and scoundrels triumph? As if our indignation at betrayal or rudeness will lessen if we clearly explain how and why it happens. Good deeds are even more difficult to explain. After all, good is usually done not for some reason, not because it was explained to me what good is, but because I cannot do otherwise. There are moral evidences that are not supported by any evidence. Also F.M. Dostoevsky, using the example of his Raskolnikov, showed that even a crime can be rationally justified, but the theorem of good cannot be proven. Therefore, you need to get used to the fact that in ethics you cannot get the same answer as in mathematics: unambiguous, logically proven and experimentally verified. This is only for the “little son” in V.V.’s poem. Mayakovsky is so clear about “what is good and what is bad.” In fact, no judgment here is final. And just as an acrobat needs to quickly move his feet to maintain balance on a ball, so in ethics it is necessary to move from thesis to thesis, from one point of view to another, so that the overall complex picture of morality is presented in its true light.
Analyzing the theory of morality, we are faced with many problems, in their multitude it is difficult to find a central one. Once you start with one, you inevitably move on to all the others. Morality, like a tangled ball, is twisted from a thread of uninterrupted reasoning. The world of morality is like the Hermitage, where from each hall you can see the next, no less beautiful, and the prospect lures you further and further. but this world can also turn into a dark labyrinth, where in endless wanderings it is impossible to determine whether you are approaching the exit or walking in circles. The confusion is aggravated by the fact that any moral task can become at the moment main Where we are, there is the center of consideration. To paraphrase Pascal, morality is an infinite sphere, the center of which is everywhere and the end is nowhere. And in this essay, in addition to considering the structure, functions and antinomies of morality, I decided to consider in detail only one of its problems, which seems to me the most important and interesting - the problem of the absolute in morality.

Question 1. Morality.
This word came from France, but the concept of morality, i.e. about the rules of human behavior among other people existed long before this word appeared. Explanation in V. Dahl's dictionary: “rules for will, conscience.” But we can say it even simpler: morality is a generally accepted concept of what is good and what is bad. True, it is necessary to clarify: when and by whom it was recognized... The mores of society and the concept of moral behavior, morality are formed in specific historical conditions.
Let's put it this way: our modern morality presupposes that children must be treated with care and kindness, and even more so towards children who are sick or have some kind of physical disability. It’s shameful, it’s just mean to say “lame” to a boy who has a limp, or “bespectacled” to someone who has to wear glasses. This is generally accepted. These are the mores of today's society, these are the moral standards (that is, when taking care of a sick child, a person does not commit some kind of exceptional act of kindness, but behaves normally, naturally, as he should). But have these norms always been like this? No. For example, according to the law of Lycurgus, according to which ancient Sparta lived for many centuries, children were subjected to a special examination, and if a child was found to have a physical defect that prevented him from subsequently becoming a full-fledged warrior, he was killed by being thrown into Apophetes - a deep crevice in the Taygetos Mountains.
From books and films, we know about the feat of King Leonidas and the 300 Spartans led by him, who all died blocking the path of the Persian invaders near Thermopylae. Grateful descendants immortalized their feat in marble, inscribing on it that the soldiers died, “honestly fulfilling the law.” But the same law allowed the killing of children, without considering it something shameful.
Another example.
To shoot a person is a crime, murder. But during the war, the sniper not only shoots at the enemy, but also keeps count of those killed by him. In this situation, one person (the sniper) seems to pronounce a sentence on another person (the enemy soldier) and carries it out himself. The morality of war allows him to act as a prosecutor, judge and executor of the sentence, which is completely impossible in peacetime conditions. There are different norms of relations between people here. Only a court can pronounce a sentence on a criminal, and any lynching, no matter how fair, is punishable.
However, morality is not only a specific historical concept, but also a class one. From the point of view of official morality, the Russian officer Andrei Potebnya, a friend and like-minded person of Herzen, who took arms in his hands to the side of the Polish rebels and fought against the tsarist punitive forces, committed a grave crime - he violated the oath and betrayed the fatherland. From the point of view of true patriots of Russia, whose voice was barely audible in 1863 and only sounded in full force decades later, Potebnya accomplished a civic feat in the name of saving the honor of Russia. Now his grave in the vicinity of Krakow is carefully guarded by the Poles - just as carefully as the graves of Soviet soldiers who died in the struggle for the liberation of Poland from the fascist yoke - and every Russian person, standing next to it, will bow to the memory of this Russian patriot who died from a bullet... Whose bullet? The bullets of a Russian soldier who considered himself, presumably, a defender of the “tsar, faith and fatherland” (otherwise he would not have shot at the rebels)…
Morality in words and morality in deeds are not at all the same thing.
The history of fascism provides an object lesson in the misadventures of morality. In the book and film “Seventeen Moments of Spring,” the characteristics from the personal files of the SS men are remembered: a good family man, an athlete, friendly with his workmates, has no discreditable connections...
Of course, not a single fascist said about himself: I am a scoundrel, I am an executioner, I am immoral. Forming the ideology and morality of the “Third Reich,” the Nazis tried to create the illusion of imitation of the cruel and harsh morals of Ancient Rome, which they saw as the “First Reich.” And the camouflage worked. By throwing out their hand in a fascist salute, the Nazis copied the famous gesture of Julius Caesar; the symbolism of their banners, orders, and military emblems called to resurrect the times of the Roman legions, trampling foreign lands in a masterly manner; the revival of barbarism was shrouded in pompous phrases. But the very nature and logic of the savage system caricatured the morals and morals of the Nazis, giving rise to monstrous immorality and immorality, penetrating into all pores of society.

Question 2. The role of morality in human life.
Philosophers argue that morality has three tasks: to evaluate, regulate and educate.
Morality makes grades. All our actions, as well as all social life(economics, politics, culture) morality evaluates from the point of view of humanism, determines whether it is good or bad, good or evil. If our actions are useful to people, contribute to the improvement of their lives, their free development, this is good, this is good. They don’t contribute, they interfere – it’s evil. If we want to give a moral assessment to something (our actions, the actions of other people, some events, etc.), we, as you know, do this using the concepts of good and evil. Or with the help of other related concepts derived from them: justice - injustice; honor - dishonor; nobility, decency - baseness, dishonesty, meanness, etc. At the same time, when evaluating any phenomenon, action, deed, we express our moral assessment in different ways: we praise, agree or blame, criticize, approve or disapprove, etc. .d.
Evaluation, of course, influences our practical activities, otherwise we simply would not need it. When we evaluate something as good, it means that we should strive for it, and if we evaluate it as evil, it should be avoided. This means that by assessing the world around us, we change something in it and, first of all, ourselves, our position, our worldview.
Morality regulates the activities of people. The second task of morality is to regulate our lives, people’s relationships with each other, to direct the activities of man and society to humane goals, to achieving good. Moral regulation has its own characteristics; it differs from government regulation. Any state also regulates the life of society and the activities of its citizens. It does this with the help of various institutions, organizations (parliaments, ministries, courts, etc.), normative documents (laws, decrees, orders), officials (officials, employees, police, police, etc.).
Morality has nothing like this: it is ridiculous to have moral officials, it is pointless to ask who issued the order to be humane, fair, kind, courageous, etc. Morality does not use the services of departments and officials. It regulates the movement of our lives in two ways: through the opinions of people around us, public opinion, and through the internal beliefs of the individual, conscience.
The person is very sensitive to the opinions of others. No one is free from the opinions of society or the collective. A person cares what others think about him. Consequently, public opinion can influence a person and regulate his behavior. Moreover, it is based not on the force of an order or law, but on moral authority, moral influence.
But there should not be a belief that public opinion, as the opinion of the majority, is always true, more true than the opinion of individuals. This is wrong. It often happens that public opinion plays a reactionary role, protecting outdated, outdated norms, traditions, and habits.
Man is not a slave to circumstances. Public opinion, of course, is great strength moral regulation. However, it should be remembered: one person can be wrong, and so can the majority. A person should not be a naive woodcutter, blindly and thoughtlessly submit to the opinions of others, the pressure of circumstances. After all, he is not a soulless cog in the state machine and not a slave to social circumstances. All men are born equal and have equal rights to life, liberty and happiness. Man is a free, active, creative being; he not only adapts to the world in which he lives, but also adapts this world itself to himself, changes circumstances, and creates a new social environment. Without individuals who are humane and brave, fair and courageous, selfless and independent-minded, society would simply stop developing, rot and die.
A person, living in society, must, of course, listen to public opinion, but he must also be able to correctly evaluate it. And if it is reactionary, protest, fight against it, go against it, defending truth, justice, humanism.
Inner spiritual beliefs of the individual. Where does a person get his strength when he speaks out against outdated public opinion, against reaction and prejudice?
Spiritual beliefs constitute the content of what we call conscience. A person is under constant control of others, but also under self-control of his internal beliefs. Conscience is always with a person. Every person has successes and failures, periods of rise and decline in life. You can free yourself from failures, but never from an unclean, stained conscience.
And a person constantly criticizes, remakes himself, as his conscience tells him to do. A person finds in himself the strength and courage to speak out against evil, against reactionary public opinion - this is what his conscience dictates. To live according to conscience requires enormous personal courage, and sometimes even self-sacrifice. But a person’s conscience will be clear and his soul will be calm if he acted in full accordance with his inner convictions. Such a person can be called happy.
The educational role of morality. Education always proceeds in two ways: on the one hand, through the influence of other people on a person, through a purposeful change in the external circumstances in which the person being educated is placed, and on the other hand, through the influence of a person on himself, i.e. through self-education. The upbringing and education of a person continues virtually all his life: a person constantly replenishes and improves knowledge, skills, and his inner world, because life itself is constantly renewed.
Morality has its own special position in the educational process.
Question 3. Concept, essence of moral principles.
The principle of morality is the principle of autonomous self-regulation by an individual of his relationships to himself and to others, to the world, his behavior (internal and external).
Moral principles are one of the forms of moral consciousness in which moral requirements are expressed most generally. If the norm of morality prescribes what specific actions a person should perform, and the concept of moral quality characterizes individual aspects of behavior and personality traits, then the principles of morality in general form reveal the content of this or that morality, express the requirements developed in the moral consciousness of society concerning the moral essence of a person , its purpose, the meaning of its life and the nature of relationships between people.
They give a person a general direction of activity and usually serve as the basis for more specific norms of behavior. In addition to the principles of morality, which reveal the content of a particular morality, for example, individualism and altruism, collectivism and humanism, there are also formal principles that reveal the features of social particular fulfillment of moral requirements (for example, consciousness and its opposites - fetishism, formalism, dogmatism, authoritarianism, fanaticism, fatalism). Although these principles do not justify any specific norms of behavior, they are nevertheless closely related to the nature of this or that morality, showing how consciously a person’s attitude towards the demands placed on him.
Moral principles motivate human behavior, i.e. act as reasons and motivations that make a person want to do something (or, conversely, not to do something). As a result of education and self-education, people develop attitudes that force them - sometimes even against their will - to do actions that should be done in accordance with moral standards, and not to take any actions that they should not do, since they contradict these norms . An honest person simply cannot, say, steal something: he will not raise his hand to do so. Whenever any values ​​or regulations conflict with moral ones, a choice must be made in favor of the latter. The priority of moral principles over all others extends to all human relationships and actions. In this sense, all spheres of human life and activity are subordinated to moral principles. Immorality is unacceptable either in everyday life or in production; neither at home nor at school; neither in sports nor in science; neither in economics nor in politics. Morality, due to the priority of its principles, ensures the unity and consistency of the interaction of people in a wide variety of circumstances. The confidence that the person next to you adheres to the same moral principles allows you to foresee the general direction of his actions, rely on him and trust him. Even without knowing either the character of a person, or his habits, skills, abilities, you can determine in advance what should and should not be expected from him. People's adherence to common and universal moral principles makes their behavior predictable.
Question 4. Characteristics of the basic principles of morality.
Humanism (lat. himapis - human) is the principle of worldview (including morality) which is based on the belief in the infinity of human capabilities and his ability to inheritance, the demand for freedom and protection of personal dignity, the idea of ​​a person’s right to happiness and that satisfying his needs and interests should be the ultimate goal of society.
The principle of humanism is based on the idea of ​​respectful attitude towards another person, fixed since ancient times. It is expressed in the golden rule of morality “act towards others in the same way as you would like them to act towards you” and in Kant’s categorical erative "always act in such a way that the maxim of your behavior can become a universal law."
However, the golden rule of morality contains an element of subjectivism, because what any individual person wants in relation to himself is not necessarily what everyone else wants .
Humanism, represented by its imperative side, acting as a practical normative requirement, undoubtedly comes from the priority of the individual over other values. Therefore, the content of humanism correlates with the idea of ​​personal happiness.
True happiness presupposes completeness and emotional richness of life. It can be achieved only in the process of self-realization of the individual, one way or another carried out on the basis of goals and values ​​shared with other people.
It is possible to identify three main meanings of humanism:
1. Guarantees of basic human rights as a condition for preserving the humane foundations of his existence.
2. Support for the weak, going beyond the usual ideas of a given society about justice.
3. Formation of social and moral qualities that allow an individual to achieve self-realization on the basis of public values.
Modern trends in the development of humanistic thought include the attention of scientists, public figures, and all sensible people to the fate of human development "The emergence of global "balanced problems are the real basis for uniting all currently existing forms of real humanism, regardless of differences in worldviews, political, religious and other beliefs."
In the modern world, the ideas of non-violence have had enormous success, making it possible in practice to liberate many peoples from colonial dependence, to overthrow totalitarian regimes, to invigorate but the opinion is against the proliferation of nuclear weapons, the continuation of underground nuclear testing, etc. The focus of humanistic thought is also on environmental problems, global alternatives associated with a certain reduction in the pace of production development, limiting consumption enia, development of waste-free production. By means of a formal principle it is impossible to resolve specific questions about the humane relationship of one person to another, and real humanism, apparently, represents some ns in a combination of different principles, the degree of combination of the freedom of self-expression of an individual with the requirements for her behavior set by the culture of a given society.
MERCY is compassionate and active love, expressed in readiness to help everyone in need and extending to all people, and ultimately to all living things. The concept of mercy combines two aspects - spiritual-emotional (experiencing someone else’s pain as one’s own) and concrete-practical (impulse for real help): without the first, mercy degenerates into coldness any philanthropy, without the second - in vain sentimentality.
The origins of mercy as a moral principle lie in the Arxaic tribal solidarity, which strictly obligated, at any cost, to rescue a relative from trouble, but excluding “strangers.” True, family solidarity can partially extend to those who are outside the circle of “insiders”, but are somehow connected with it (obligations to the guest, prescribed in the Old Testament wearing to unauthorized persons and “aliens”, etc.).
However, we can talk about mercy only when all the barriers between “ours” and “strangers”, if not in everyday practice, then in idea and in individual heroic moral acts, have been overcome and oe suffering ceases to be only a subject of cold condescension.
Religions such as Buddhism and Christianity were the first to preach mercy. In Christian ethics, a caring attitude towards one's neighbor is defined as mercy and is one of the main virtues. The significant difference between mercy and friendly love-affection is that, according to the commandment of love, it is mediated by the absolute ideal - love of God. Christian love for one's neighbor is not limited to loved ones, it extends to all people, including enemies.
Even if property inequality is pushed aside, loneliness, old age, illness and other suffering will remain that require not only public concern, but also more oh individual mercy. Nowadays, there is a gradual process of full return of the term “mercy” into the vocabulary of our society, and activities aimed at specific assistance to people are being intensified. waiting in mercy.
PABEHCTBO (in morality) - a relationship between people, within which they have the same rights to the development of creative abilities for happiness, respect for their personal dignity. Along with the need for fraternal unity between people, equality is the key idea of ​​morality, historically emerging as an alternative to consanguinity and social alnoy separateness of people, their actual economic and political inequality. The most adequate expression of the principle of equality in morality is the golden rule, from the formulation of which follows the universality (universality) of moral requirements, their spread to all people, regardless of their social status and living conditions, and the universality of moral judgments, which lies in the fact that when assessing the actions of others people proceed from the same grounds as when assessing their own actions.
The idea of ​​equality receives normative expression in the principle of altruism and the corresponding requirements of compassion (pity), mercy, and participation.
As historical experience shows, moral equality can be practically realized only with a certain socio-political and cultural status of people who are characterized by eco nominal and political independence, the possibility of increasing the educational and professional level, spiritual development with the indispensable responsibility of everyone o a member of the society for the results of their activities .
ALTPUISM (from Latin alteg - other) is a moral principle that prescribes compassion for other people, selfless service to them and readiness for self-denial in the name of their good and happiness. The concept of “Altruism” was introduced into the theory of morality by Comte, who placed this principle as the basis of his ethical system. Comte linked the moral improvement of society with the education in people of a social sense of altruism, which should counteract their selfishness.
As a requirement for equality and humanity, altruism is one of the normative foundations of morality and humanism. At the same time, being addressed to the individual as a bearer of private interests, altruism actually necessarily presupposes self-denial, because in conditions of mutual separation of interests Concern for the interests of one's neighbor is possible only if one's own interests are infringed. Specific forms of realization of altruism in behavior are beneficence and philanthropy.
Justice is a concept of moral consciousness that expresses not this or that value, good, but their general relationship between themselves and the specific distribution between individuals; the proper order of human society, corresponding to ideas about the essence of man and his inalienable rights. Justice is also a category of legal and socio-political consciousness. Unlike the more abstract concepts of good and evil, with the help of which a moral assessment is given to certain phenomena as a whole, justice characterizes the relationship between several phenomena from the point of view of distribution of good and evil between people.
Justice does not contradict either mercy, kindness, or love. Love includes both of these concepts. A just judge is obliged to punish the criminal, however, moved by love and in accordance with the circumstances, he can at the same time show mercy in order to mitigate the punishment, which must always be humane. For example, a judge should not bully the accused, deprive him of a lawyer, or administer an unfair trial.
According to Aristotle, the main task of the prudent (prudent) is to make the right decisions regarding the good and benefit for oneself as a whole - for a good life. With the help of prudence, a person is able to choose the right means for this purpose in a particular situation and implement it in action. Aristotle emphasizes that to be prudent means not just to know, but to be able to act in accordance with knowledge. If scientific and philosophical knowledge deals with extremely general definitions that do not allow justification, then prudence presupposes knowledge not only of the general, but even to a greater extent of the particular, since it deals with making decisions and performing actions in specific (private) circumstances. And a prudent person, as a person capable of making decisions, knows how to achieve the highest possible benefit in a specific action. If wisdom is gained through the mind, then prudence is gained through experience and a special feeling similar to conviction.
Subsequently, I. Kant separated prudence from morality. He showed that the moral law is not determined by any goal external to it. Prudence is aimed at the natural goal - happiness, and a prudent act is only a means for it.
The rehabilitation of prudence in modern moral philosophy involves the restoration of its meaning as practical wisdom, that is, as the ability to act in specific circumstances in the best possible way. In the best way - it means focusing, if not on a morally sublime, then at least on a morally justified goal.
Prudence is determined by one of the key (along with justice and benevolence) principles of morality. This principle is formulated in the form of the requirement to take equal care of all parts of one's life and not to prefer the immediate good to the greater good that can only be achieved in the future.
LOVE OF PEACE is a principle of morality and politics, based on the recognition of human life as a higher social and moral value and affirming the maintenance and strengthening of peace as an ideal relations between peoples and states. Peacefulness presupposes respect for the personal and national dignity of individual citizens and entire nations, state sovereignty, human rights and people’s rights a significant lifestyle choice.
Peacefulness contributes to the maintenance of social order, mutual understanding between generations, the development of historical and cultural traditions, the interaction of various social groups, ethnicities, nations, ltyp. Peacefulness is opposed by aggressiveness, belligerence, a penchant for violent means of conflict resolution, suspicion and distrust in relations between people, nations, social chemical systems. In the history of morality, peacefulness and aggressiveness, hostility are opposed as two main trends.

Conclusion
Nothing can happen outside of morality, i.e. outside the circle of values ​​that determine human life. Each individual, each group, each society is a certain system of norms, ideals, prohibitions that allow the individual to gradually improve in the chosen direction. Morality, therefore, is an obligatory dimension of human existence. The ultimate goal of morality is human happiness, the most harmonious development of the individual and all people.
One of the necessary signs of true morality is eternity, the immutability of its principles and categories, including the categories of good and evil, which are the most general and fundamental concepts of ethics.
Material things, especially those created by man, are prone to change. Moreover, they must change and improve. Human genius constantly invents better things. This forms part of the progress towards which man naturally strives in his creativity.
But moral principles and values ​​are of a different order. Some of them are relative, while others are absolute and unchanging. They are unchangeable because, among many other things, they do not allow us to commit actions that are directed against our dignity.

Literature
1. Guseinov A.A., Apresyan R.G. Ethics. M.: 1998. - 472 p.
2. Zelenkova I.L., Belyaeva E.V. Ethics: Textbook. - Mn.: published by V.M. Skakun, 1995. - 320 p.
3. Milner-Irinin A.Ya. Ethics or principles of true humanity. M., Interbook, 1999. - 519 p.
4. Mitashkina T.V., Brazhnikova Z.V. Ethics. History and theory of morality. Minsk, BSPA "VUZ-UNITY", 1996. - 345 p.
etc.............

Lecture 1.The subject of ethics, the main problems of ethics. The structure and functions of morality.

Moral principles.

Ethics(from the Greek “ethos” - character, custom) - a philosophical study of morality and morality. Initially, the word “ethos” meant the rules of people living together, norms of behavior that unite society, helping to overcome aggression and individualism.

Second meaning of the word ethics- a system of moral and moral norms of a certain social group of people.

First time term ethics used Aristotle(384 – 322 BC), he interpreted it as a practical philosophy that seeks an answer to the question: “What should we do?”

Golden Rule of Ethics(morality) - “do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself” - found in Confucius (551 - 479 BC).

Main ethical issues:

The problem of good and evil

The problem of justice

The problem of what should be

The meaning of life and the purpose of man.

Morality is a form of social consciousness that establishes a socially necessary type of human behavior. Unlike law, morality is largely unwritten and is recorded in the form of customs, traditions and generally accepted ideas.

Moral- this is the practical embodiment of moral ideals, goals and attitudes in various areas of social life, in the behavior of people and the relationships between them.

Morality consists of the following components.

Moral activity– the most important component of morality, manifested in actions. Only the totality of a person’s actions gives an idea of ​​his morality. “...Man is nothing more than a series of his actions” (G. Hegel).

The action, in turn, contains three components:

- motive action;

- result action;

- grade surrounding both the act itself and its result and motive.

2. Moral (moral) relations- this is the relationship that one enters into

people doing things (moral or immoral). Entering into this relationship,

people place certain burdens on themselves moral obligations and at the same time

acquire certain moral rights. The established system of moral

relations underlies the moral and psychological climate of a certain

social group of people (service team).

Moral consciousness appears in the form:

Generally binding forms of moral requirements (described using the concepts moral principles,moral standards And moralcategories);

Personal forms of moral demands (described using similar concepts self-esteem, self-awareness);

Social moral requirements (described using the concepts social ideal, justice).

Moral consciousness is generated by the need to regulate the social life of people and their relationships. Unlike science, moral consciousness operates mainly at the level of social psychology and everyday consciousness. Moral principles, norms and categories directly woven into human activity, acting as motives for actions. Moral consciousness is mandatory; each person has his own system of moral values, experiences moral motivations, and is aware of ethical norms and principles. Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) wrote: “Two things always fill the soul with new and ever stronger surprise and awe -

this is the starry sky above me and the moral law within me.”

Basic functions of morality.

Regulatory function. The function of moral regulation of relationships between people is the main and determining one. It covers that sphere of relations that is not regulated by law, and in this sense it complements law. Let us note that all legal norms also affirm justice, serve the good and benefit of society and citizens, and are unconditionally moral in nature.

Evaluation function. The subject of assessment from the position of “moral - immoral” or “moral - immoral” are actions, attitudes, intentions, motives, personal qualities, etc.

Orienting function. In practice, before making a moral judgment and implementing one or another moral norm in an act or behavior, a person has to take into account a significant number of circumstances, each of which may prompt the application of different (sometimes mutually exclusive) moral norms. High level moral culture helps to choose the only correct one from a variety of moral norms, thus orienting a person in the system of moral priorities.

Motivational function. This function allows you to evaluate actions, goals and means from the point of view of the motivating intention. Motives and motivations can be moral and immoral, noble and base, selfish and selfless, etc.

Cognitive (information) function. This function is aimed at acquiring ethical knowledge: principles, norms, codes of conduct, etc.

Educational function. Through education, moral experience is passed on from generation to generation, forming the moral type of personality and ensuring the preservation of cultural tradition.

Worldview function. This function is very close to the evaluative function, with the only difference being that the worldview function covers the basic, basic concepts and ideas of a person about the reality around him.

Communication function. Acts as a form of communication, transmission of information about the values ​​of life, moral contacts of people. Ensures mutual understanding and communication between people based on the development of common moral values, and hence - service interaction, “common sense”, support and mutual assistance.

Moral principles.

Moral principles play a dominant role in moral consciousness. Expressing the requirements of morality in the most general form, they constitute the essence of moral relations and are a strategy for moral behavior. Moral principles are recognized by moral consciousness as unconditional requirements, adherence to which is strictly obligatory in all life situations. They express the basic requirements concerning the moral essence of a person, the nature of relationships between people, determine the general direction of human activity and underlie private, specific norms of behavior. Moral principles include such general principles of morality as:

1 .The principle of humanism. The essence of the principle of humanism is the recognition of man as the highest value. In ordinary understanding, this principle means love for people, protection of human dignity, people’s right to happiness and the possibility of self-realization. It is possible to identify three main meanings of humanism:

Guarantees of basic human rights as a condition for preserving the humane foundations of his existence;

Support for the weak, going beyond the usual ideas of a given society about justice;

Formation of social and moral qualities that allow an individual to achieve self-realization on the basis of public values.

2. The principle of altruism. This is a moral principle that prescribes selfless actions aimed at the benefit (satisfaction of interests) of other people. The term was introduced into circulation by the French philosopher O. Comte (1798 - 1857) to capture the concept opposite to the concept selfishness. Altruism as a principle, according to Comte, says: “Live for others.”

3. The principle of collectivism. This principle is fundamental in uniting people to achieve common goals and carry out joint activities; it has a long history and is fundamental to the existence of humanity. The collective seems to be the only way of social organization of people from primitive tribes to modern states. Its essence lies in the conscious desire of people to contribute to the common good. The opposite principle is the principle of individualism. The principle of collectivism includes several particular principles:

Unity of purpose and will;

Cooperation and mutual assistance;

Democracy;

Discipline.

4.Principles of justice proposed by the American philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002).

First principle: Every person should have equal rights to fundamental freedoms.

Second principle: Social and economic inequalities must be adjusted so that:

They could reasonably be expected to benefit everyone;

Access to positions and positions would be open to everyone.

In other words, everyone should have equal rights in relation to freedoms (freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, etc.) and equal access to schools and universities, to official positions, jobs, etc. Where equality is impossible (for example, in an economy where there is not enough wealth for everyone), this inequality must be arranged to the benefit of the poor. One possible example of such a redistribution of benefits would be a progressive income tax, where the rich pay more taxes, and the proceeds go to the social needs of the poor.

5. The principle of mercy. Mercy is compassionate and active love, expressed in readiness to help everyone in need and extending to all people, and ultimately to all living things. The concept of mercy combines two aspects:

Spiritual-emotional (experiencing someone else’s pain as if it were your own);

Concretely practical (impulse for real help).

The origins of mercy as a moral principle lie in the Axaic clan solidarity, which strictly obligated to rescue a relative from trouble at the cost of any victims.

Religions such as Buddhism and Christianity were the first to preach mercy.

6. The principle of peacefulness. This principle of morality is based on the recognition of human life as the highest social and moral value and affirms the maintenance and strengthening of peace as the ideal of relations between people us and states. Peacefulness presupposes respect for the personal and national dignity of individual citizens and entire nations, state sovereignty, human rights and people’s rights a significant lifestyle choice.

Peacefulness contributes to the maintenance of social order, mutual understanding between generations, the development of historical and cultural traditions, the interaction of various social groups, ethnicities, nations, ltyp. Peacefulness is opposed by aggressiveness, belligerence, a penchant for violent means of conflict resolution, suspicion and distrust in relations between people, nations, social chemical systems. In the history of morality, peacefulness and aggressiveness are opposed as two main trends.

7. The principle of patriotism. This is a moral principle, in a general form expressing a feeling of love for the Motherland, concern for its interests and readiness to defend it from enemies. Patriotism is manifested in pride in the achievements of one’s native country, in bitterness because of its failures and troubles, in respect for its historical past and in caring attitude towards people’s memory, national and cultural traditions.

The moral significance of patriotism is determined by the fact that it is one of the forms of subordination of personal and public interests, unity of man and the Fatherland. But patriotic feelings and ideas only morally elevate a person and a people when they are associated with respect for the peoples of other countries and do not degenerate into the psychology of the nation pure exclusivity and distrust of “outsiders.” This aspect in patriotic consciousness has become especially relevant recently, when the threat of nuclear self-destruction or environmental catastrophe required rethinking patriotism as a principle commanding everyone to contribute to their country’s contribution to the preservation of the planet and the survival of humanity.

8. The principle of tolerance. Tolerance means respect, acceptance and proper understanding of the rich diversity of our world's cultures, our forms of self-expression and ways of expressing human individuality. It is promoted by knowledge, openness, communication and freedom of thought, conscience and belief. Tolerance is a virtue that makes peace possible and helps replace the culture of war with a culture of peace.

The manifestation of tolerance, which is consonant with respect for human rights, does not mean tolerating social injustice, abandoning one’s own or yielding to other people’s beliefs. This means that everyone is free to hold their own beliefs and recognizes the same right for others. This means recognizing that people by nature differ in appearance, position, speech, behavior and values ​​and have the right to live in peace and maintain their individuality. This also means that one person's views cannot be imposed on others.

Morality and law.

Law, like morality, regulates the behavior and relationships of people. But unlike morality, the implementation of legal norms is controlled by public authority. If morality is an “internal” regulator of human actions, then law is an “external” state regulator.

Law is a product of history. Morality (as well as mythology, religion, art) is older than him in its historical age. It has always existed in human society, but law arose when the class stratification of primitive society occurred and states began to be created. The sociocultural norms of a primitive stateless society concerning the division of labor, distribution of material goods, mutual defense, initiation, marriage, etc. had the force of custom and were reinforced by mythology. They generally subordinated the individual to the interests of the collective. Measures of social influence were applied to those who violated them - from persuasion to coercion.

Both moral and legal norms are social. What they have in common is that both types serve to regulate and evaluate the actions of an individual. Various things include:

law is developed by the state, morality by society;

law is enshrined in state acts, morality is not;

for violating a rule of law, state sanctions are expected; for violating a moral rule, public condemnation, criticism and, in some cases, state sanctions.

Any society has its own moral code, and each individual lives according to his own inner convictions. And also, every socially formed person has his own moral principles. Thus, everyone has a formed set of moral and ethical principles that he adheres to in everyday life. This article will discuss what moral principles are. How does it develop in a person’s mind and how is it reflected in everyday life?

The concept of moral (moral) foundation

To begin with, we should give the concept of what a moral or, as it is also called, moral foundation is.

Moral principles are the moral framework of each person or social group. The formation of such foundations occurs under the influence of any spiritual teachings, religion, upbringing, education or state propaganda and culture.

Moral foundations, as a rule, are subject to change, and this is due to the fact that in the course of life the worldview changes, and sometimes those things that once seemed normal become unacceptable over time, or vice versa.

What are high moral principles

In addition to moral principles, high moral principles should also be highlighted.

High moral principles are a moral standard of behavior, thinking, and worldview that every person must strive for.

Moral principles play a very important role in the life of any person, since thanks to them, human society continues to exist and develop. They make it possible to remain reasonable and not sink to the level of an animal that is exclusively controlled by instincts. It should be remembered that it does not matter whether a person is surrounded by family, enemies, friends or at work, one must always remain human and not only not violate personal moral principles, but also strive to overcome negative emotions, fear, pain in order to maintain high moral principles.

"No man is like an island"
(John Donne)

Society consists of many individuals who are similar in many ways, but also extremely different in their aspirations and worldviews, experiences and perceptions of reality. Morality is what unites us, these are those special rules adopted in the human community and defining a certain general view of categories such as good and evil, right and wrong, good and bad.

Morality is defined as norms of behavior in society that have been formed over many centuries and serve for the correct development of a person in it. The term itself comes from Latin word mores, which means the rules accepted in society.

Moral Traits

Morality, which is largely decisive for the regulation of life in society, has several main features. Thus, its fundamental requirements for all members of society are the same, regardless of position. They operate even in situations that are outside the area of ​​responsibility of legal principles and extend to such areas of life as creativity, science, and production.

Norms of public morality, in other words, traditions, are significant in communication between specific individuals and groups of people, allowing them to “speak the same language.” Legal principles are imposed on society, and their failure to comply carries with them consequences of varying severity. Traditions and moral norms are voluntary; every member of society agrees to them without coercion.

Types of moral standards

Over the centuries, they have taken different forms. Thus, in primitive society, such a principle as taboo was indisputable. People who were proclaimed as transmitting the will of the gods were strictly regulated as prohibited actions that could threaten the entire society. Violation of them was inevitably followed by the most severe punishment: death or exile, which in most cases was the same thing. The taboo is still preserved in many. Here, as a moral norm, examples are the following: you cannot be on the territory of the temple if the person does not belong to the clergy caste; You cannot have children from your relatives.

Custom

A moral norm is not only generally accepted, as a result of its derivation by some elite, it can also be a custom. It represents a repetitive pattern of actions that is especially important in order to maintain a certain position in society. In Muslim countries, for example, traditions are more revered than other moral norms. Customs based on religious beliefs, V Central Asia can cost lives. For us, who are more accustomed to European culture, legislation is an analogue. It has the same impact on us as traditional moral standards have on Muslims. Examples in this case: a ban on drinking alcohol, closed clothing for women. For our Slavic-European society, the customs are to bake pancakes on Maslenitsa and celebrate the New Year with a Christmas tree.

Among moral norms, tradition is also distinguished - a procedure and pattern of behavior that is preserved for a long time, passed on from generation to generation. A kind of traditional moral standards, examples. In this case, these include: celebrating the New Year with a Christmas tree and gifts, maybe certain place, or go to the bathhouse on New Year's Eve.

Moral rules

There are also moral rules - those norms of society that a person consciously determines for himself and adheres to this choice, deciding what is acceptable for him. For such a moral norm, examples in this case: give up your seat to pregnant and elderly people, shake hands with a woman when exiting a vehicle, open the door for a woman.

Functions of morality

One of the functions is evaluation. Morality considers events and actions that take place in society from the point of view of their usefulness or danger to further development, and then gives his verdict. Various types of reality are assessed in terms of good and evil, creating an environment in which each of its manifestations can be assessed both positively and negatively. With the help of this function, a person can understand his place in the world and form his position.

The regulatory function is no less important. Morality actively influences people's consciousness, often acting better than legal restrictions. From childhood, with the help of education, each member of society develops certain views on what can be done and what cannot be done, and this helps him adjust his behavior in such a way that it is useful for himself and for development in general. Moral norms regulate both the internal views of a person, and therefore his behavior, and the interaction between groups of people, allowing them to maintain the established way of life, stability and culture.

The educational function of morality is expressed in the fact that under its influence a person begins to focus not only on his own needs, but also on the needs of the people around him and society as a whole. The individual develops an awareness of the value of the needs of other participants in society, which, in turn, leads to mutual respect. A person enjoys his freedom as long as it does not violate the freedom of other people. similar in different individuals, help them better understand each other and act harmoniously together, positively influencing the development of each of them.

Morality as a result of evolution

The basic moral principles of any time in the existence of society include the need to do good deeds and not cause harm to people, regardless of what position they occupy, what nationality they belong to, or followers of what religion they are.

The principles of norms and morality become necessary as soon as individuals interact. It was the emergence of society that created them. Biologists who focus on the study of evolution say that in nature there is also a principle of mutual utility, which in human society is realized through morality. All animals that live in society are forced to moderate their egoistic needs in order to be more adapted to later life.

Many scientists consider morality as a result of the social evolution of human society, being the same natural manifestation. They say that many of the principles of norms and morality, which are fundamental, were formed through natural selection, when only those individuals survived who could interact correctly with others. Thus, as an example, they cite parental love, which expresses the need to protect the offspring from all external dangers in order to ensure the survival of the species, and the ban on incest, which protects the population from degeneration through the mixing of too similar genes, which leads to the appearance of weak children.

Humanism as a basic principle of morality

Humanism is fundamental principle norms of public morality. It refers to the belief that every person has the right to happiness and countless opportunities to realize this right, and that at the core of every society should be the idea that everyone in it has value and is worthy of protection and freedom .

The main one can be expressed in the well-known rule: “treat others the way you want to be treated.” Another person in this principle is seen as deserving the same benefits as any particular person.

Humanism assumes that society must guarantee basic human rights, such as the inviolability of home and correspondence, freedom of religion and choice of place of residence, and the prohibition of forced labor. Society must make efforts to support people who, for one reason or another, are limited in their abilities. The ability to accept such people distinguishes human society, which does not live according to the laws of nature with natural selection, dooming those who are not strong enough to die. Humanism also creates opportunities for human happiness, the pinnacle of which is the realization of one’s knowledge and skills.

Humanism as a source of universal moral norms

Humanism in our time draws society's attention to such universal human problems as the spread nuclear weapons, environmental threats, the need to develop and reduce production levels. He says that the containment of needs and the involvement of everyone in solving problems that face the entire society can only happen through an increase in the level of consciousness and the development of spirituality. It forms universal human moral norms.

Mercy as a basic principle of morality

Mercy is understood as a person’s readiness to help people in need, to sympathize with them, perceiving their suffering as his own and wanting to alleviate their suffering. Many religions pay close attention to this moral principle, especially Buddhism and Christianity. In order for a person to be merciful, it is necessary that he does not divide people into “us” and “strangers”, so that he sees “his own” in everyone.

Currently, great emphasis is placed on the fact that a person should actively help those who need mercy, and it is important that he not only provides practical assistance, but is also ready to support morally.

Equality as a basic principle of morality

From a moral point of view, equality calls for a person's actions to be evaluated regardless of his social status and wealth, and from a general point of view, for the approach to human actions to be universal. This kind of state of affairs can only exist in a well-developed society that has reached a certain level of economic and cultural development.

Altruism as a basic principle of morality

This moral principle can be expressed in the phrase “Love your neighbor as yourself.” Altruism assumes that a person is able to do something good for another person for free, that this will not be a favor that must be returned, but a selfless impulse. This moral principle is very important in modern society, when life in big cities alienates people from each other and creates the feeling that caring for one’s neighbor without intentionality is impossible.

Morality and law

Law and morality are in close contact, since together they form the rules in society, but they have a number of significant differences. Correlation and morality allows us to identify their differences.

The rules of law are documented and developed by the state as mandatory rules, non-compliance with which inevitably entails liability. The categories of legal and illegal are used as an assessment, and this assessment is objective, built on regulatory documents, such as the constitution and various codes.

Moral norms and principles are more flexible and different people may be perceived differently and may also depend on the situation. They exist in society in the form of rules that are passed on from one person to another and are not documented anywhere. Moral norms are quite subjective, assessment is expressed through the concepts of “right” and “wrong”; their failure to comply in some cases cannot lead to more serious consequences than public censure or simply disapproval. For a person, violating moral principles can lead to pangs of conscience.

The relationship between the norms of law and morality can be seen in many cases. Thus, the moral principles “thou shalt not kill”, “thou shalt not steal” correspond to the laws prescribed in the Criminal Code, which state that an attempt on human life and his property leads to criminal liability and imprisonment. A conflict of principles is also possible when a legal violation - for example, euthanasia, which is prohibited in our country, which is considered as murder of a person - can be justified by moral convictions - the person himself does not want to live, there is no hope for recovery, the disease causes him unbearable pain.

Thus, the difference between legal and moral norms is expressed only in legislation.

Conclusion

Moral norms were born in society in the process of evolution; their appearance is not accidental. They were needed before to support society and protect it from internal conflicts, and they still perform this and other functions, developing and progressing along with society. Moral standards have been and will remain an integral element of a civilized society.

Any science has a certain range of problems, the most complex theoretical and practical questions to which it must seek answers. The main ethical issues include:

• - the problem of criteria of good and evil;
• - the problem of the meaning of life and human purpose;
• - the problem of justice;
• - the problem of what should be.

Basic moral categories

It is possible to identify a number of moral categories that most fully reflect the essence and content of ethics. Among them: moral principles, moral standards, moral behavior, moral consciousness of a person, moral ideal, good and evil.

Moral principles

Moral principles are basic moral laws, which are a system of values ​​that reinforces a person’s moral responsibilities through moral experience. They are also called virtues. Moral principles are formed in the process of education and together become the basis for the development of a number of moral qualities of an individual (humanity, sense of justice, rationality, etc.).

The ways and means of implementing each moral principle are varied and depend on individual characteristics the person himself, the moral traditions that have developed in society, and the specific life situation. The most comprehensive and widespread principles include the principles of humanity, respect, rationality, courage and honor.

Humanity - This is a set of positive qualities that represent a conscious, kind and selfless attitude towards people around us, all living beings and nature in general. A person differs from an animal in that he has such qualities as reason, conscience, and spirituality. Being an intellectual and spiritual being, in any, even the most difficult, situations, he must remain a person in accordance with the high moral stage of his development.

Humanity consists of everyday actions that reflect a person’s kind attitude towards other people and are manifested in such positive acts as mutual assistance, revenue, service, concession, favor. Humanity is a volitional action of a person based on a deep understanding and acceptance of his inherent moral qualities.

Reverence - This is a respectful attitude not only towards family and friends, but also towards the entire world around us, the ability to treat familiar and unfamiliar people, things and things with gratitude and attention. natural objects and phenomena. Deference is associated with such qualities as politeness, tact, courtesy, benevolence, and sympathy.

Reasonableness - it is an action based on moral experience. It includes concepts such as wisdom and logic. On the one hand, rationality is a quality of a person’s personality, depending on the intelligence given to him from birth, and on the other, ego actions consistent with experience and a system of moral values.

Courage And honor - categories that signify a person’s ability to overcome difficult life circumstances and a state of fear without losing self-esteem and respect from other people. They are closely interrelated and are based on personality traits such as a sense of duty, responsibility and resilience.

Moral principles must be constantly implemented in human behavior to consolidate moral experience.

Moral standards

The cohabitation of individuals in society requires a certain restriction of their freedom, since some human actions can be harmful and even dangerous for society. Moral standards reflect the principles and rules of relationships between people established by society that arise in the process of living together. Relationships are built on the basis of moral standards joint activities and mutual assistance between people.

Moral norms are a social phenomenon, since they affect the problem of individual behavior in society, representing the requirements that society makes for each individual person. It is society that determines how relationships between its members should be built. Society also evaluates a person's behavior. Quite often, these assessments do not coincide with individual ones: what seems positive for an individual can cause a negative assessment by society, and vice versa, society often forces a person to do something that is contrary to his aspirations and desires.

The fact that moral norms are social in nature has developed historically. After all, a person’s moral consciousness is formed under the influence of his environment, on the basis of moral ideals and moral authorities developed by society. The moral standards of an individual are a symbiosis of social attitudes and personal consciousness.

Moral standards are the basis for society's assessment of human behavior. There are no uniform criteria for such an assessment; they depend on the era, the type of society, on the traditional moral attitudes that have developed in a particular territory, in a particular country, etc. The same actions of people at different times, in different societies can be considered moral and immoral. For example, the barbaric traditions of scalping among the northern Indians or eating the heart of a defeated enemy among the natives of Oceania at one time did not seem immoral, but were considered a manifestation of special valor deserving public respect.

Moral norms in society exist in the form of prohibitions and unspoken instructions. Prohibitions represent those norms of individual behavior that are undesirable for society as a whole. Unspoken, informal instructions give a person freedom to choose the type of behavior within the framework of generally accepted norms. Historically, prohibitions have always preceded regulations.