The times of the Golden Horde. The Golden Horde - the true history of Russia

Reasons for the collapse of the Golden Horde

Note 1

The beginning of the collapse of the Golden Horde is associated with "Great Remembrance" which began in $1357 with the death of Khan Janibeka. This state entity finally collapsed in the $40s of the $15th century.

Let us highlight the main reasons for the collapse:

Lack of a strong ruler (with the exception of a short time Tokhtamysh)
Creation of independent uluses (districts)
Growing resistance in controlled territories
Deep economic crisis

The Horde's destruction begins

As noted above, the beginning of the decline of the Horde coincided with the death of Khan Janibek. His numerous descendants entered into a bloody feud for power. As a result, for a little over $2$, decades of “zamyatni” were replaced by $25$ of khans.

In Rus', of course, they took advantage of the weakening of the Horde and stopped paying tribute. Military clashes soon followed, the grandiose result of which was Battle of Kulikovo$1380$ year ended for the Horde under the leadership of Temnik Mom, I terrible defeat. And, although two years later a strong khan came to power Tokhtamysh returned the collection of tribute from Rus' and burned Moscow; the Horde no longer had the previous power.

Collapse of the Golden Horde

Central Asian ruler Tamerlane in $1395$ he completely defeated Tokhtamysh and installed his governor in the Horde Edigeya. In $1408, Edigei made a campaign against Rus', as a result of which many cities were plundered, and the payment of tribute, which had stopped in $1395, resumed again.

But there was no stability in the Horde itself; new unrest began. Several times using Lithuanian prince Vytautas The sons of Tokhtamysh seized power. Then Timur Khan expelled Edigei, although he put him at the head of the Horde. As a result, in $1419, Edigei was killed.

In general, the Horde ceased to exist as a single state association after the defeat by Tamerlane. Since the $1420s, the collapse has accelerated sharply, as another turmoil led to the ruin of economic centers. Under the current conditions, it is quite natural that the khans sought to isolate themselves. Independent khanates began to appear:

The Siberian Khanate emerged in $1420-1421
The Uzbek Khanate appeared in $1428
The Kazan Khanate arose in $1438
The Crimean Khanate appeared in $1441
The Nogai Horde took shape in the $1440s
The Kazakh Khanate appeared in $1465

Based on the Golden Horde, the so-called Great Horde, which formally remained dominant. The Great Horde ceased to exist at the beginning of the 16th century.

Liberation of Rus' from the yoke

In $1462, Ivan III became Sovereign Grand Duke of All Rus'. His priority foreign policy was complete liberation from the remnants of the Horde yoke. After $10$ years he became the Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat. He set out on a campaign against Rus', but Russian troops repulsed Akhmat’s attacks, and the campaign ended in nothing. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde. Akhmat could not immediately withdraw a new army against Rus', since he was fighting the Crimean Khanate.

Akhmat's new campaign began in the summer of $1480. For Ivan III, the situation was quite difficult, since Akhmat enlisted the support of the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV. In addition, Ivan's brothers Andrey Bolshoi And Boris at the same time they rebelled and left for Lithuania. Through negotiations, the conflict with the brothers was resolved.

Ivan III went with his army to the Oka River to meet Akhmat. Khan did not cross for two months, but in September $1480 he nevertheless crossed the Oka and headed to Ugra River, located on the border with Lithuania. But Casimir IV did not come to Akhmat’s aid. Russian troops stopped Akhmat's attempts to cross the river. In November, despite the fact that the Ugra was frozen, Akhmat retreated.

Soon the khan went to Lithuania, where he plundered many settlements, avenging the betrayal of Casimir IV. But Akhmat himself was killed during the division of the loot.

Note 2

Traditionally, the events of Akhmat’s campaign against Rus' are called "standing on the Ugra River". This is not entirely true, because clashes took place, and quite violent ones, during Akhmat’s attempts to cross the river.

Be that as it may, after the “standstill,” Rus' finally got rid of the $240-year-old yoke.

At what stage of education do schoolchildren usually become familiar with the concept of the “Golden Horde”? 6th grade, of course. A history teacher tells children how the Orthodox people suffered from foreign invaders. One gets the impression that in the thirteenth century Rus' experienced the same brutal occupation as in the forties of the last century. But is it worth it to so blindly draw parallels between the Third Reich and the medieval semi-nomadic state? And what did the Tatar-Mongol yoke mean for the Slavs? What was the Golden Horde for them? “History” (6th grade, textbook) is not the only source on this topic. There are other, more thorough works of researchers. Let's take an adult look at a fairly long period of time in the history of our native fatherland.

The beginning of the Golden Horde

Europe first became acquainted with the Mongolian nomadic tribes in the first quarter of the thirteenth century. Genghis Khan's troops reached the Adriatic and could successfully advance further - to Italy and to Italy. But the dream of the great conqueror came true - the Mongols were able to scoop up water from the Western Sea with their helmet. Therefore, an army of thousands returned to their steppes. For another twenty years, the Mongol Empire and feudal Europe existed without colliding in any way, as if in parallel worlds. In 1224, Genghis Khan divided his kingdom between his sons. This is how the Ulus (province) of Jochi appeared - the westernmost in the empire. If we ask ourselves what the Golden Horde is, then the starting point of this state formation can be considered the year 1236. It was then that the ambitious Khan Batu (son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan) began his Western campaign.

What is the Golden Horde

This military operation, which lasted from 1236 to 1242, significantly expanded the territory of the Jochi ulus to the west. However, it was too early to talk about the Golden Horde then. An ulus is an administrative unit in a great one and it was dependent on the central government. However, Khan Batu (in Russian chronicles Batu) in 1254 moved his capital to the Lower Volga region. There he established the capital. Khan founded Big City Sarai-Batu (now a place near the village of Selitrennoye in Astrakhan region). In 1251, a kurultai was held, where Mongke was elected emperor. Batu came to the capital Karakorum and supported the heir to the throne. Other contenders were executed. Their lands were divided between Mongke and the Chingizids (including Batu). The term “Golden Horde” itself appeared much later - in 1566, in the book “Kazan History”, when this state itself had already ceased to exist. The self-name of this territorial entity was “Ulu Ulus”, which means “Grand Duchy” in Turkic.

Years of the Golden Horde

Showing loyalty to Mongke Khan served Batu well. His ulus received greater autonomy. But the state gained complete independence only after the death of Batu (1255), already during the reign of Khan Mengu-Timur, in 1266. But even then, nominal dependence on the Mongol Empire remained. This enormously expanded ulus included Volga Bulgaria, Northern Khorezm, Western Siberia, Desht-i-Kipchak (steppes from the Irtysh to the Danube itself), North Caucasus and Crimea. By area public education can be compared with the Roman Empire. Its southern outskirts were Derbent, and its northeastern limits were Isker and Tyumen in Siberia. In 1257, his brother ascended the throne of the ulus (ruled until 1266). He converted to Islam, but most likely for political reasons. Islam did not affect the broad masses of the Mongols, but it gave the khan the opportunity to attract Arab artisans and traders from Central Asia and the Volga Bulgars to his side.

The Golden Horde reached its greatest prosperity in the 14th century, when Uzbek Khan (1313-1342) ascended the throne. Under him, Islam became the state religion. After the death of Uzbek, the state began to experience an era of feudal fragmentation. Tamerlane's campaign (1395) drove the last nail into the coffin of this great but short-lived power.

End of the Golden Horde

In the 15th century the state collapsed. Small independent principalities appeared: the Nogai Horde (the first years of the 15th century), Kazan, Crimean, Astrakhan, Uzbek. The central government remained and continued to be considered supreme. But the times of the Golden Horde are over. The power of the successor became increasingly nominal. This state was called the Great Horde. It was located in the Northern Black Sea region and extended to the Lower Volga region. The Great Horde ceased to exist only at the beginning of the sixteenth century, having been absorbed

Rus' and Ulus Jochi

The Slavic lands were not part of the Mongol Empire. What the Golden Horde is, the Russians could only judge from the westernmost ulus of Jochi. The rest of the empire and its metropolitan splendor remained out of sight of the Slavic princes. Their relations with the Jochi ulus at certain periods were of a different nature - from partnership to outright slavery. But in most cases it was a typically feudal relationship between feudal lord and vassal. Russian princes came to the capital of the Jochi ulus, the city of Sarai, and paid homage to the khan, receiving from him a “label” - the right to govern their state. He was the first to do this in 1243. Therefore, the most influential and first in subordination was the label for the Vladimir-Suzdal reign. From this during Tatar-Mongol yoke and the center of all Russian lands has shifted. The city of Vladimir became it.

“Terrible” Tatar-Mongol yoke

The history textbook for the sixth grade depicts the misfortunes that the Russian people suffered under the occupiers. However, not everything was so sad. The princes first used Mongol troops in the fight against their enemies (or pretenders to the throne). Such military support had to be paid for. Then, in the days of the princes, they had to give part of their income from taxes to the khan of the Jochi ulus - their lord. This was called the “Horde exit.” If the payment was delayed, the bakauls arrived and collected taxes themselves. But at the same time, the Slavic princes ruled the people, and their life continued as before.

Peoples of the Mongol Empire

If we ask ourselves the question of what the Golden Horde is from the point of view of the political system, then there is no clear answer. At first it was a semi-military and semi-nomadic alliance of Mongol tribes. Very quickly - within one or two generations - the striking force of the conquering army was assimilated among the conquered population. Already at the beginning of the 14th century, Russians called the Horde “Tatars.” The ethnographic composition of this empire was very heterogeneous. Alans, Uzbeks, Kipchaks and other nomadic or sedentary peoples permanently lived here. The khans encouraged the development of trade, crafts and the construction of cities in every possible way. There was no discrimination based on nationality or religion. In the capital of the ulus - Sarai - an Orthodox bishopric was even formed in 1261, so numerous was the Russian diaspora here.

The Golden Horde (Ulus Jochi) is a Mongol-Tatar state that existed in Eurasia from the 13th to the 16th centuries. At its height, the Golden Horde, nominally part of the Mongol Empire, ruled over the Russian princes and exacted tribute from them (the Mongol-Tatar yoke) for several centuries.

In Russian chronicles, the Golden Horde wore different names, but most often Ulus Jochi (“Possession of Khan Jochi”) and only since 1556 the state began to be called the Golden Horde.

The beginning of the era of the Golden Horde

In 1224, the Mongol Khan Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire between his sons, his son Jochi received one of the parts, and then the formation of an independent state began. After him, his son, Batu Khan, became the head of the Jochi ulus. Until 1266, the Golden Horde was part of the Mongol Empire as one of the khanates, and then became independent state, having only a nominal dependence on the empire.

During his reign, Khan Batu made several military campaigns, as a result of which new territories were conquered, and the lower Volga region became the center of the Horde. The capital was the city of Sarai-Batu, located near modern Astrakhan.

As a result of the campaigns of Batu and his troops, the Golden Horde conquered new territories and during its heyday occupied the lands:

Mostly modern Russia, except Far East, Siberia and the North;
Ukraine;
Kazakhstan;
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.

Despite the existence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and the power of the Mongols over Russia, the khans of the Golden Horde were not directly involved in governing Rus', collecting only tribute from the Russian princes and carrying out periodic punitive campaigns to strengthen their authority.

As a result of several centuries of rule of the Golden Horde, Rus' lost its independence, the economy was in decline, the lands were devastated, and the culture forever lost some types of crafts and was also in the stage of degradation. It was thanks to the long-term power of the Horde in the future that Rus' always lagged behind the countries of Western Europe in development.

State structure and management system of the Golden Horde

The Horde was a fairly typical Mongol state, consisting of several khanates. In the 13th century, the territories of the Horde kept changing their borders, and the number of uluses (parts) was constantly changing, but at the beginning of the 14th century a territorial reform was carried out and the Golden Horde received a constant number of uluses.

Each ulus was headed by its own khan, who belonged to ruling dynasty and was a descendant of Genghis Khan, at the head of the state there was a single khan, to whom all the others were subordinate. Each ulus had its own manager, ulusbek, to whom smaller officials reported.

The Golden Horde was a semi-military state, so all administrative and military positions were the same.

Economy and culture of the Golden Horde

Since the Golden Horde was a multinational state, the culture absorbed much from different nations. In general, the basis of culture was the life and traditions of the nomadic Mongols. In addition, since 1312 the Horde became Islamic state, which is also reflected in traditions. Scientists believe that the culture of the Golden Horde was not independent and throughout the entire period of the state’s existence was in a state of stagnation, using only ready-made forms introduced by other cultures, but not inventing its own.

The Horde was a military and trading state. It was trade, along with the collection of tribute and the seizure of territories, that was the basis of the economy. The khans of the Golden Horde traded furs, jewelry, leather, timber, grain, fish and even olive oil. Trade routes to Europe, India and China ran through the territory of the state.

The end of the era of the Golden Horde

In 1357, Khan Janibek died and turmoil began, caused by the struggle for power between the khans and high-ranking feudal lords. Behind short period 25 khans changed in the state until Khan Mamai came to power.

During this same period, the Horde began to lose its political influence. In 1360, Khorezm separated, then, in 1362, Astrakhan and the lands on the Dnieper separated, and in 1380, the Mongol-Tatars were defeated by the Russians and lost their influence in Rus'.

In 1380 - 1395, the unrest subsided, and the Golden Horde began to regain the remnants of its power, but not for long. By the end of the 14th century, the state carried out a number of unsuccessful military campaigns, the power of the khan weakened, and the Horde broke up into several independent khanates, headed by the Great Horde.

In 1480, the Horde lost Rus'. At the same time, the small khanates that were part of the Horde finally separated. The Great Horde existed until the 16th century, and then also collapsed.

The last khan of the Golden Horde was Kichi Muhammad.

At the end of the XII-beg. XIII centuries in the steppes of Central Mongolia, the process of formation of the Centralized Mongolian state began, and then the creation new empire. Genghis Khan and his successors conquered almost all of Eastern and half of Western Eurasia. During 1206-1220, Central Asia was conquered; before 1216 - China; in the period before 1223 - Iran, Transcaucasia. Then the Mongol troops entered the Polovtsian steppes. On May 5, 1223, on the Kalka River, the united Russian-Polovtsian forces were defeated by Mongol troops.

In 1227, Genghis Khan dies. Before his death, the empire was divided between four sons: Ogedei got Mongolia and Northern China, Tulu - Iran, Chagatai - eastern Central Asia and modern Kazakhstan, Jochi - Khorezm, Dasht-i-Kipchak (Cuman steppes) and unconquered lands in the West . However, Jochi's eldest son died in the same year 1227 and his ulus passed to his son Batu.

Battle of Polish and Mongol troops (1241). Part of a triptych. Poland.

In 1235, in the city of Karakorum (the capital of the Mongol Empire), a kurultai (congress) of the Mongol aristocracy was held, at which the issue of going to the West was decided. Batu was appointed leader of the campaign. Many princes and generals were assigned to help him. In the fall of 1236, Mongol troops united within the Volga Bulgaria. During 1236, Bulgaria was conquered. Desht-i-Kipchak was conquered in the period 1236-1238. In 1237, Mordovian lands were conquered. During 1237-1240, Rus' was enslaved. Then Mongol troops penetrated into Central Europe, successfully fought in Hungary, Poland and reached the Adriatic Sea. However, in 1242 Batu turned to the East. The death of Kaan (“Great Khan”) Ogedei, a message about which came to Batu’s headquarters, played a decisive role in this. At the end of 1242 and the beginning of 1243, Mongol troops returned from Europe and stopped in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes. Soon, Grand Duke Yaroslav Vsevolodovich comes to Batu's headquarters for a label to reign. In the territory of Eastern Europe A new state is emerging - the Golden Horde.

In 1256, Batu Khan dies, and his son Sartak sits on the Golden Horde throne, who, however, soon dies. Ulakchi, the son of Sartak, became the owner of the throne, and his reign was short-lived; he died in the same 1256.

From the message of contemporaries:

“In the summer of 6745. The same winter from eastern countries the Tatars have arrived Ryazan land forest with King Batu, and Stasha Onuze, taking Yu. And to Ryazan I sent a noble wife as an ambassador, and with two husbands, asking for tenth of the people, and of princes and horses, tenths of horses from all the wool... And the Tatars began to fight the land of Ryazan. And when he came, he retreated from the city of Rezyan and took the city of that month 16... Poidosha x Kolomna... And at Kolomna they had a strong fight. And the Tatars, who came to Moscow, took them and took away Prince Volodimer Yuryevich.”

From the Lviv Chronicle:

“Batu, at his headquarters, which he had within Itil, outlined a place and built a city and called it Sarai... Merchants from all sides brought him (Batu) goods; all it was worth. The Sultan of Rum (rulers from the Seljuk dynasty in Asia Minor), Syria and other countries, he gave preferential letters and labels, and everyone who came to his service did not return without benefit.”

Persian historian Juvaini, XIII century

“He himself sat on a long throne, wide as a bed, and entirely gilded, next to Batu sat one lady... A bench with kumis and large gold and silver bowls, decorated precious stones, stood at the entrance.”

Western European traveler G.Rubruk, XIII century

“He (Berke) was the first of the descendants of Genghis Khan to accept the religion of Islam; (at least) we were not told that any of them became Muslims before him. When he became a Muslim, most of his people accepted Islam.”

Egyptian historian An-Nuwayri, XIV century

“His sultan, Uzbek Khan, who is now staying there, built a madrasah for science in it (i.e. in Sarai), because he is very devoted to science and his people... From the affairs of his state, Uzbek pays attention only to the essence of affairs, without going into details of the circumstances.”

Arab scientist al-Omari, XIV century

“After the death of Uzbek Khan, Janibek Khan became khan. This Janibek Khan was the most wonderful of Muslim sovereigns. He showed great respect to scientists and everyone distinguished by knowledge, ascetic deeds and piety...

After the death of Janibek, all the princes and emirs installed Berdi-bek as khans. Birdie Bek was a cruel, wicked man, with a black soul, malicious... His reign did not last even two years. Berdibek ended the direct line of the children of the Sain Khans (i.e. Batu Khan). After him, the descendants of other sons of the Jochi Khans reigned in Desht-i-Kipchak.”

Khiva Khan and historian Abul Ghazi, XVII century

From the works of historians:

“It would be more correct to call Batu’s great western campaign a great cavalry raid, and we have every reason to call the approach to Rus' a raid. There was no talk of any Mongol conquest of Rus'. The Mongols did not install garrisons and did not even think about establishing their permanent power. With the end of the campaign, Batu went to the Volga, where he founded his headquarters in the city of Sarai... In 1251, Alexander came to Batu’s Horde, became friends, and then fraternized with his son Sartak, as a result of which he became adopted son khan. The union of the Horde and Rus' was realized thanks to the patriotism and dedication of Prince Alexander.”

L.N.Gumilyov

“It was in 1243 Grand Duke Yaroslav for the first time and the first of the Russian princes went to headquarters Mongol Khan behind the label for reign. All these facts allow us to believe that the emergence of a new state, which later received the name Golden Horde, can be attributed to the beginning of 1243.”

V.L.Egorov

“The growth of the power of the Golden Horde is undoubtedly associated with the personality of its head, Uzbek Khan, with his outstanding organizational abilities and, in general, great talent for government and politician”.

R.G. Fakhrutdinov

The Golden Horde was formed in the Middle Ages, and it was a truly powerful state. Many countries tried to support him a good relationship. Cattle breeding became the main occupation of the Mongols, and they knew nothing about the development of agriculture. They were fascinated military art, that's why they were excellent riders. It should be especially noted that the Mongols did not accept weak and cowardly people into their ranks. In 1206, Genghis Khan became Great Khan, whose real name was Temujin. He managed to unite many tribes. Possessing strong military potential, Genghis Khan and his army defeated East Asia, Tangut Kingdom, Northern China, Korea and Central Asia. Thus began the formation of the Golden Horde.

This state existed for about two hundred years. It was formed on the ruins of the empire of Genghis Khan and was powerful political education in Desht-i-Kipchak. The Golden Horde appeared after the Khazar Khaganate died; it was the heir to the empires of nomadic tribes in the Middle Ages. The goal that the formation of the Golden Horde set for itself was to take possession of one branch (northern) of the Great Silk Road. Eastern sources say that in 1230 large squad, consisting of 30 thousand Mongols, appeared in the Caspian steppes. This was an area of nomadic Polovtsians, they were called Kipchaks. The Mongol army of thousands went to the West. Along the way, the troops conquered the Volga Bulgars and Bashkirs, and after that they captured the Polovtsian lands. Genghis Khan assigned Jochi to the Polovtsian lands as an ulus (region of the empire) to his eldest son, who, like his father, died in 1227. Complete victory over these lands was won by the eldest son of Genghis Khan, whose name was Batu. He and his army completely subjugated the Ulus of Jochi and stayed in the Lower Volga in 1242-1243.

During these years, the Mongolian state was divided into four divisions. The Golden Horde was the first of these to be a state within a state. Each of the four sons of Genghis Khan had his own ulus: Kulagu (this included the territory of the Caucasus, the Persian Gulf and the territories of the Arabs); Jagatai (included the area of present-day Kazakhstan and Central Asia); Ogedei (it consisted of Mongolia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China and Transbaikalia) and Jochi (these are the Black Sea and Volga regions). However, the main one was the ulus of Ogedei. Mongolia had a common capital Mongol Empire- Karakorum. All state events took place here; the leader of the Kagan was the main man of the entire united empire. The Mongol troops were distinguished by their belligerence; they initially attacked the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities. Russian cities again turned out to be targets for conquest and enslavement. Only Novgorod survived. In the next two years, Mongol troops captured all of what was then Rus'. During the fierce hostilities, Batu Khan lost half of his army. The Russian princes were divided during the formation of the Golden Horde and therefore suffered constant defeats. Batu conquered Russian lands and imposed tribute on the local population. Alexander Nevsky was the first who managed to come to an agreement with the Horde and temporarily suspend hostilities.

In the 60s, a war broke out between the uluses, which marked the collapse of the Golden Horde, which the Russian people took advantage of. In 1379, Dmitry Donskoy refused to pay tribute and killed the Mongol commanders. In response to this, the Mongol Khan Mamai attacked Rus'. The Battle of Kulikovo began, in which Russian troops won. Their dependence on the Horde became insignificant and the Mongol troops left Rus'. The collapse of the Golden Horde was completely completed. The Tatar-Mongol yoke lasted for 240 years and ended with the victory of the Russian people, however, the formation of the Golden Horde can hardly be overestimated. Thanks to the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Russian principalities began to unite against common enemy, which strengthened and made the Russian state even more powerful. Historians estimate the formation of the Golden Horde as important stage for the development of Rus'.