Bovids (Cavicornia) is a family of mammals from the deer-like family, uniting a number of genera of the largest mammals, including: bulls, yaks, buffalos, buffalos, bison, musk oxen, goats, sheep, roe deer, antelopes and others.
The family is divided into a number of subfamilies, including (within the scope of the fauna of Europe):

1. subfamily of Bulls (Bovinae), including the genera Bull (Bos), Buffalo (Bubalus) Saiga (Saiga)
2. subfamily of goats (Caprinae), including the genera Kozitsya (Rupicapra), Ram (Ovis), Goat (Capra).
3. a number of subfamilies of "lungs" and mobile Bykovs from common name"antelope".

Classification:
Subfamily Aepycerotinae - Impala
Alcelaphinae: Impala (Aepyceros melampus)
Aepyceros - impala (1 species)
Subfamily Alcelaphinae - Bubal
Alcelaphinae: White-faced mackerel (Damaliscus pygargus)
Alcelaphus (3 species)
Beatragus (1 species)
Connochaetes - wildebeest (2 species)
Damaliscus - Bubalo (4 species)
Subfamily Antilopinae - Antelopes
Antilopinae: Eland (Taurotragus oryx)
Ammodorcas (1 species)
Antidorcas (1 species)
Antelope - antelope (1 species)
Dorcatragus (1 species)
Eudorcas (3 species)
Gazella - gazelle (10 species)
Litocranius (1 species)
Madoqua (4 species)
Nanger (3 types)
Neotragus (3 species)
Oreotragus (1 species)
Ourebia (1 species)
Procapra (3 types)
Raphicerus (3 species)
Saiga - saiga antelope (1 species)
subfamily Bovinae - bulls
Bovinae: Indian buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)
Bison - bison (2 species)
Bos - bull (genus) (5 species)
Boselaphus - nilgai (1 species)
Bubalus - buffalo (4 species)
Pseudoryx (1 species)
Syncerus - buffalo (1 species)
Taurotragus - eland (2 species)
Tetracerus (1 species)
Tragelaphus (7 species)
subfamily Caprinae - goats
Caprinae: Bezoar goat (Capra aegagrus)
Ammotragus (1 species)
Budorcas (1 species)
Capra - goat (8 species)
Capricornis - Capricorn (6 species)
Hemitragus (3 species)
Naemorhedus (4 species)
Oreamnos (1 species)
Ovibos - muskox (1 species)
Ovis - sheep (5 species)
Pantholops (1 species)
Pseudois (2 species)
Rupicapra - goat grass (2 species)
subfamily Cephalophinae – Duiker
Cephalophinae: Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli)
Cephalophus - Duiker (15 species)
Philantomba (2 species)
Sylvicapra (1 species)
subfamily Hippotraginae - sablehorns
Hippotraginae: Oryx (Oryx gazella)
Addax - Addax (1 type)
Hippotragus - schablerig (3 species)
Oryx - oryx (4 species)
subfamily Reduncinae - redundum
Reduncinae: Kobus kob
Kobus - kob (5 types)
Pelea - Pele (1 species)
Redunca - redberry (3 species).

Morphology and anatomy

Bovids are characterized by the presence of horns in many cases in females and always in males (with the exception of the Shui forms), the absence of upper incisors and canines, a 3-chamber stomach, and a developed cecum. Hornless cows are often called “polled” (from the ancient name of the horse “komoni”).
Behavior, food, selection. The vast majority of Bovids are herd animals of open spaces. They feed on herbaceous plants, as well as leaves and shoots of trees.
Breeding and domestic forms. Bovids, both in the past and now, are represented by numerous forms. From this family of mammals, people developed economically profitable meat and dairy breeds of domestic animals. Through domestication and selection of certain species of wild nature, people obtained domestic rams and sheep, goats and goats, bulls and cows, and buffaloes. The main attention deserves the selection of characteristics of females from which offspring, milk, wool, and horns were obtained.
Ancient hunting. Almost all species of the genus have been the main objects of human hunting since ancient times. Pictures of hunting have been known since the creation of rock paintings by ancient people of the cave era of the development of civilization. Thanks to this, representatives of the Bykov family played an outstanding role in the development of civilization as a source of protein food.
Modern hunting. Subsequently, the transition of people to settled life and agriculture turned hunting into a separate branch of entertainment (royal hunts), and then into the delight of the general population. Today, bovid hunting is a separate branch of the economy. In Ukraine, state reserve hunting farms were created for this purpose (for example, DZLMG "Zalesye" and Crimean DZLMG) and now numerous forest hunting farms operate.

And due to the development of transport and tools for hunting animals, the condition of the populations of many bovid species has deteriorated significantly, and some species have completely disappeared. In particular, in Ukraine over the past few centuries the following have disappeared: the original bull (tur), saiga, European bison (bison), and common roe deer. In 2009, a number of actions were carried out in Ukraine to protect the largest species of the Bovid family in Europe - the European bison (bison) - under the name "2009 - the year of the bison (Bison bonasus) in Ukraine."
Problems of poaching. One of the main problems of hunting is poaching, which is also called “illegal hunting,” which is why many complaints from conservationists and ecologists are addressed to hunters. There is a huge difference between hunters and poachers. Every hunting group and every hunting farm is interested in increasing the populations of game animals, including species of the Bovid family, and in strict control of poaching.
In Ukraine and neighboring countries, bovids are represented by the following genera and species:

1. Bull subfamily (Bovinae)

genus Bull - Bos (destroyed in the wild)
species Original bull, or aurochs - Bos primigenius (destroyed in the wild)
species Domestic bull, or cattle (domesticated form of Bos taurus)
genus Buffalo - Bubalus (introduced)
species Indian buffalo - Bubalus bubalis (introduced, often kept in Transcarpathia)
genus Saiga - Saiga (exterminated in the wild in Ukraine)
Tatar saiga species - Saiga tatarica (exterminated in the wild in Ukraine)
2) subfamily of goats (Caprinae)
genus Roe deer - Rupicapra (wild in Ukraine destroyed)
species Common or mountain roe deer - Rupicapra rupicapra
genus Ram - Ovis (introduced)
species Domestic sheep - Ovis aries (introduced, widely cultivated)
wild sheep or mouflon - Ovis musimon
genus Goat - Capra (introduced)
species Domestic goat - Capra hircus (introduced, often kept on farms)
In addition, a large number of different species of this family are kept in zoos, in particular in Askania-Nova. There are fewer and fewer bovids left in the wild.

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Bovid species

maned ram

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Family Bovids
(Bovidae)

/ / Bovids /
//Bovidae/

Family Bovidae This is the most extensive family of artiodactyls, both in the number of species and in the diversity of biological types: from tiny dik-diks, almost the size of hares, to huge bulls, from light, slender gazelles to massive rams. The most clear and constant sign of bovids is the structure of the horns, although their shape and size are extremely diverse. The horn is a bony rod that develops on the outgrowths of the frontal bones. This rod is covered with a horny sheath, which grows along with the rod, never branches and is not completely replaced throughout life. The growth of the horny substance occurs from below, from the base. In most bovids, both males and females have horns, but females are usually smaller. There are also hornless females.

The dental system of bovids is characterized by the absence of upper incisors and canines. They have very strongly developed skin glands on the head, at the base of the tail, in the groin, between the hooves and in some other areas of the body. Bovids are geologically one of the youngest families. The earliest finds of their remains date back to the Lower Miocene of Eurasia. Representatives of the genera Archaeomeryx and Geolocus from the Eocene of Southeast Asia are usually considered to be the original forms; these were small hornless ungulates, close to deer. In Europe, bovids appeared in the Miocene, and in Africa - the modern center of their development - only in the lower Pliocene. The geographical distribution of bovids covers Africa, Eurasia and North America. They are completely absent from South America and Australia (excluding domestic animals introduced by humans). The ability of bovids to develop a wide variety of landscapes, from tundras and highlands to tropical forests, steppes and even arid deserts, is unusually wide. This is one of the most progressive features of the family, indicating the evolutionary flourishing of the group as a whole. There is no single, generally accepted view of the bovid system. Research in recent years, carried out in Europe, Asia and especially in Africa, has, however, made it possible to obtain a fairly complete picture of the total size of the family and the order of subfamilies, genera and species. We divide the bovid family into 10 subfamilies with 53 genera and approximately 115 species. It should be noted that the widely used term “antelope,” which denotes the vast majority of African ungulates, does not have the meaning of a systematic category and unites species that are very distant both in origin and in appearance. Almost all bovids are considered important game animals. True, some of them have now become rare and are under protection. The most important domestic animals also belong to this family. DOOKERS (Cephalophinae) (Subfamily) Duikers are small, typically African antelopes; the largest of them reach the size of a roe deer, the smallest are slightly larger than a hare. Despite their small size and disproportionately thin legs, duikers have a rather dense build; Their hind limbs are somewhat longer than the front ones, which is why the animal appears hunched over. The horns are short, usually straight, less often slightly curved, and are often absent in females. On the forehead there is a crest of coarse hair that partially hides the horns. Females are slightly larger than males. The subfamily includes 2 genera: bush duikers (Sylvicapra) and crested or forest duikers (Cephalophus). Dwarf antelopes (Neotraginae) (Subfamily) Like duikers, pygmy antelopes are among the smallest representatives of the bovid family. The subfamily includes 8 genera with 14 species, although such a division cannot be called completely established and generally accepted. ANTELOPE (Tragelaphinae) (Subfamily) Animals are medium and large in size, their horns (with a few exceptions) are twisted into a more or less pronounced spiral. The subfamily has 4 genera with 10 species, distributed in Africa and South Asia. COW ANTELOPE (Alcelaphinae) (Subfamily) Cow antelopes are animals with a very distinctive appearance. An elongated narrow head with strongly curved, more or less S-shaped horns, a sharply sloping back from the shoulders to the rump and a long tail ending in a lush brush make it possible at first glance to distinguish representatives of this subfamily from all other antelopes in Africa. Both males and females are armed with horns. The taxonomy of cow antelopes is complex due to wide geographical variability and only in Lately developed in detail by the German zoologist T. Haltenort. In the following presentation (with minor exceptions) we adhere to the system proposed by this researcher. The cow antelope family includes 3 genera and 6 species. SABER-HORNED ANTELOPE (Hippotraginae) (Subfamily) Large, strong and at the same time slender, armed with long, beautifully shaped horns, saber-horned antelopes are among the most beautiful animals in Africa. The subfamily has 3 genera with 5 species. WATER GOATS (Reduncinae) (Subfamily) Large to medium-sized antelopes with slightly curved or lyre-shaped horns (only males have horns). The subfamily includes 3 genera with 8 species, distributed only in Africa. Despite their name, waterbucks are not related to real goats. GAZELLES (Antilopinae) (Subfamily) With the word “gazelle” we associate the idea of ​​a slender, graceful and graceful animal. Indeed, all the antelopes included in this subfamily are unusually slender and light in build, with a beautifully raised head, decorated with thin black lyre-shaped horns. Harmony and perfection are felt in the entire appearance of gazelles. At the same time, despite their apparent fragility, gazelles are strong and hardy animals, capable of withstanding difficult conditions of deserts and semi-deserts. Gazelles are usually tall-legged, and their height reaches 100-120 cm at the withers with a weight of up to 70-85 kg; usually they are much smaller. In most species, both males and females have horns (in some species of gazelles, females are hornless). The color is usually uniform grayish-sandy or brownish with a lighter underside. Sometimes a dark stripe runs along the sides of the body, but there are no transverse stripes on the body. Often the head is decorated with a so-called facial pattern of longitudinal dark and light stripes. Representatives of the subfamily inhabit deserts, steppes, savannas and dry light forests of Africa, Western, Middle and Central Asia. Species belonging to this subfamily have been known in Asia since the Upper Miocene, and their cradle apparently lies in Western Asia. In Africa, where they are now most diverse, gazelles appeared only in the Pleistocene, possibly at the end of the Pliocene. According to modern ideas, the subfamily has 7 genera with 19 species. However, the taxonomy of gazelles is not sufficiently developed, and, probably, some of the species of the genus of gazelles proper (Gazella), of which, according to the latest reports, there are about 12, will turn out to be only subspecies upon further study. The lifestyle of most gazelles has been poorly studied. The exception is the gazelle and some gazelles inhabiting East Africa. SAIGAS (Saiginae) (Subfamily) The animals united in this subfamily occupy an intermediate position between gazelles and goats. In addition to the saiga, this includes the orongo, a little-studied ungulate from Tibet. GOATS AND RRAMS (Caprinae) (Subfamily) This subfamily unites bovids that are very diverse in appearance, belonging to 11 genera and 16-20 species. Despite noticeable differences in the size, structure and shape of the horns, the species included in this subfamily represent a single group, the extreme members of which are interconnected by a long chain of related forms. The subfamily consists of three groups, which modern taxonomists assign the meaning of tribes. Experts have no disagreement on the number of genera included in the subfamily, but the number of species of real goats (Sarga) and rams (Ovis) remains unclear. Representatives of the subfamily are known from the Upper Miocene of Eurasia. Later, already in the Pleistocene, some species settled in Africa and America, but even now they reach their greatest diversity in Asia. This subfamily includes two species of important farm animals - goats and sheep. BULL (Bovinae) (Subfamily) Bulls are the largest of the bovids. These are powerful and strong animals. Their massive body rests on strong limbs, their heavy, wide, low-set head in both males and females is crowned with horns, thick and short in some species, flattened and long in others. The shape of the horns is also quite variable among various representatives: in some cases the horns resemble a simple crescent, in others they are S-shaped. There are no intercoffin glands. The tail is relatively thin, with a brush at the end. The hair is short, close to the body, or thick and shaggy. Representatives of the subfamily are distributed in Asia, Europe, Africa and North America. The subfamily includes 4 genera with 10 species, of which one in the wild was exterminated by humans in historical time, but exists in the form of numerous breeds of domestic cows, which were also introduced to South America and Australia.

(Bovidae)**

* * The family of bovids, or bulls, is the largest and most diverse group of artiodactyls, including 45-50 modern genera and about 130 species.

Bovids form a natural, clearly defined group. No matter how close deer are to bovids, they differ from them in the structure and development of their antlers, which tend to fall off every year, grow again and branch out more and more. “Bovids,” says Blasius, “have cone-shaped sharpened bone growths on the forehead, which are surrounded by a horny sheath; these bone growths constantly grow in length, and at the base and in width. As they grow, new horny layers are constantly formed on this bone stump, for which the old layers serve as a kind of case. And in hollow antlers, a new horny mass separates the old layers of the antlers from the bone growth, but these old layers do not fall off, as in deer, since the cone-shaped appearance of the surface of the old horny layers prevents this. The annual layers on the antlers are noticeable in a wavy way. grooves. The horny substance does not grow the same all year. The annual increase also varies depending on the age; the older the animal, the less the annual increase is."***.

* * * Due to the seasonal unevenness of growth, “annual rings” are noticeable on the horns of some artiodactyls, making it possible to determine the age of the animal.

Other characteristics of this family can be the dental system: all bovid animals have six incisors and two canines only on the lower jaw; there are no front teeth on the upper jaw; on each side of the jaws, above and below, we find six molars. The zygomatic arch is very dense.
Apart from the dental system and horns it is difficult to find general signs, characteristic of all bovids. The structure of their body is very diverse; this family includes both thick and massive animals and light and graceful ones. The shape of the horns and hooves, the length of the tail, hair and coloring are very different; lacrimal dimples are sometimes present, sometimes not; the tip of the muzzle is covered with hair or bare - in a word, upon closer examination of these animals you notice many distinctive features*.

* Unlike deer, bovids never have upper canines; the molars have a higher crown and a more complex chewing surface. The number of fingers is sometimes reduced to two.

The lifestyle of bovids is as varied as their appearance. They are distributed throughout the earth, with the exception of South America and Australia**; many species are found in all zones globe and in a wide variety of areas: in arid deserts and in tropical forests rich in vegetation, in swampy plains and in high mountains.

* * Being numerous and diverse in Africa and Eurasia, bovids in limited numbers penetrated into North America only in the Pleistocene, crossing the Beringian land. Now only 5-6 species from 4 genera (subfamilies Caprinae and Bovinae) are found here. Bovids never reached South America and Australia, as well as many islands and archipelagos. In Russia there are 12 wild species of bovids from 8 genera.

Most live in herds. Almost everyone has well-developed mental abilities. Many species are distinguished by their intelligence, but some, on the contrary, are naturally very stupid. They reproduce quite quickly, although the female brings one cub at a time, less often two, as an exception - three, and only in rare cases - four. Young animals do not differ in growth and development from other ruminants. They are born developed and, for the most part, within a few hours after birth, they can follow their parents along the most dangerous places. In many species, growth continues for several years, but in most, the young are capable of reproduction within a year, and this explains the rapid increase in the number of individuals in individual herds of ruminants.
Bovids are more important to humans than all other ruminants. Between them, man chose the most necessary domestic animals; from them we get a significant part of our food and clothing material; Without them, it would be impossible for a person to live today. Even wild species of this family, enjoying unlimited freedom, do much more good than harm. Almost without exception, everyone provides us with delicious meat, skin, wool and horns. All wild bovids are considered game animals. In addition to humans, these animals also have other enemies, but even more often than from violent death, they die from hunger and various diseases that are very common among them.
Bulls are large, strong and clumsy ruminants, the signs of which are mainly more or less round and smooth horns, a wide muzzle with nostrils far apart from each other, a long tail reaching the heel joint with a brush at the end, the absence of lacrimal pits and intercoffin glands; females have an udder with four teats. Most have a saggy dewlap or fold of skin on the top of the neck. The skeleton consists of very rough and thick bones. The skull is wide at the forehead and slightly narrowed towards the muzzle; round eye sockets are located on the sides of the skull far from one another; the frontal processes on which the horns sit extend laterally from the back of the frontal bone. The structure of the teeth is nothing special. On each jaw, the largest are the internal incisors, the front ones are usually small, while the back ones are very developed. The horns widen at the root and therefore can cover almost the entire forehead, but in most they leave it open. The horns are smooth, rounded and have transverse wrinkles only at the base; they bend differently: outward or inward, backward or forward, up or down, or have a lyre-shaped shape. The hairline is short and lies smoothly against the skin, but on some parts of the body it can lengthen in the form of a mane.
The homeland of bulls should be considered all of Europe and Africa, Central and South Asia, as well as North America; Currently, domesticated species are distributed in all parts of the globe. In the wild, bulls inhabit a wide variety of areas; some live in dense forests, others among the free steppes, some on the plains, others in the mountains, where they reach heights of up to 6000 m. Some species prefer swampy areas and swamps, others - drier places. Those who live in the mountains descend into the valleys in winter; those living in the north move south; in other areas they move from one place to another, richer in vegetation. Without exception, all species live in societies and gather in herds led by strong and experienced animals. Old males usually separate and live as hermits.
Although bulls appear clumsy and slow, they are able to move quickly and show much more agility than one might expect. They usually move at a slow pace, but they trot and sometimes turn into an extremely clumsy gallop, which speeds up their movement to a significant extent. Species living in mountains climb masterfully. All bulls swim easily and well, some can cross the widest rivers without fear. They have extraordinary strength, and their endurance is amazing. Of the sense organs, smell is the most developed, hearing is also good, vision is not particularly strong. Wild ones show much more intelligence than domesticated ones, who do not need to strain their mental strength. They are meek and trusting of animals, which are not dangerous to them and do not bother them. But they are extremely fierce, stubborn and extremely courageous. Irritated, they rush, despising death, at predatory animals, even the strongest, and with such dexterity they know how to use their terrible weapon- horns and hooves, which often remain winners. In general, peaceful with each other, at certain periods, especially during the mating period, they enter into battles, showing great ferocity. Their voice is a clear or dull moo or resembles grunting and grumbling, which is heard mainly when they are excited.
The food of bulls consists of plants. They eat leaves and tender buds, shoots and branches of the most different trees, grasses and cereals, tree bark, mosses and lichens, marsh and aquatic plants, even sharp cutting sedge and reed plants. In captivity they also feed on plant matter. Salt is a delicacy for everyone, water is an urgent need; many enjoy wallowing in muddy swamps or lying in rivers and ponds for hours.
Mating is preceded by fierce battles between bulls; 9-12 months later, the cow calves one calf, very rarely two. The calf is born fully developed and is almost immediately able to follow its mother. She treats him with great tenderness, feeds and cleans him, licks and caresses him, and in case of danger protects him from any attack with great courage; in some species, males also guard the young.
All types of bulls can be tamed and obey, more or less willingly, people, get used to their masters, love and recognize them, go to their call and obey even a weak child.
Hunting for wild bulls is dangerous. A particularly formidable opponent is the irritated bull, whose blind rage knows no bounds. But it is precisely because of the danger that this hunt seems attractive to many; some peoples value it especially highly. Hunting wild bulls brings in considerable income; people use not only their skin, but also their meat, which, despite its often musky odor, serves as excellent food.
Bulls living in the wild only harm humans except by gnawing trees and bushes in forests, destroying grass in meadows and various plantations on plantations; tamed ones, on the contrary, benefit with their strength, meat and bones, skin and horns, milk, wool and even dung. In the west of Russia there is a unique treasure. This is the famous Belovezhskaya Pushcha, a real northern primeval forest covering an area of ​​2000 square kilometers. It is isolated and, like an island, surrounded by fields, villages and moorland. There is only one village in the forest, which has the same name as the forest, but is inhabited not by cultivators, but by foresters and rangers. About four-fifths of the forest area consists of pine trees, which retain exclusive dominance over a large area. In damper places, spruce, oak, linden, hornbeam, birch, alder, poplar and willow trees appear. B. this forest is home to the greatest European mammal - bison(Bison bonasus). Only here and in some forests of the Caucasus, as well as in Mięzercitz in Silesia, has this powerful animal been preserved at the present time; on the rest of the earth's surface it has already been exterminated. In Belovezhskaya Pushcha it is protected by strict laws, and if for many centuries the changing owners of this amazing menagerie had not provided the bison with such protection, then by our time the bison could only be found in the Caucasus.
In former times things were, of course, different; it can be proven that the bison was distributed throughout Europe and large parts of Asia. During the prosperity of Ancient Greece, it was often found in what is now Bulgaria; in central Europe it was found almost everywhere. Aristotle calls it “bonassus” and makes an accurate description; Pliny gives it under the name “bison” and considers Germany to be its homeland. Ancient written monuments mention him in the 6th and 7th centuries after the birth of Christ, and the “Song of the Nibelungs” says that he lives in the Vosges. During the time of Charlemagne, the bison was found in the Harz and Saxony; around the year 1000, according to Ekkegaard, this wild animal was found near St. Gallen. Around 1373, he lived in Pomerania, in the 15th century in Prussia, in the 16th century in Lithuania, in the 18th century in eastern Prussia, where in 1755 the last representative of this species was killed by a poacher.
The kings and magnates of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth were zealously involved in the protection of bison. They were kept in special gardens and parks, for example, near Ostroleka, Warsaw and Zamoysk. The increasing population and cultivation of the fields made such protection impossible in the course of time; The bison stayed for some time in Prussian Lithuania, where foresters protected them by setting up open sheds with food in winter. They were usually caught then as gifts to foreign courts. So, in 1717, two bison were delivered to the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, the same number to the English king Georg. The widespread rinderpest at the beginning of the 18th century destroyed most of these herds. There is no doubt that the bison living in Belovezhskaya Pushcha would have suffered the same fate if the Polish kings and then the Russian emperors had not protected an animal rare in the modern world.
According to information that came to me through the late Count Lazar, the bison lived longer than in Prussia in Hungary, in wooded Transylvania. This is also indicated by the fact that the names of some mountains, streams and even villages contain the word “bison”. In the Turech Chronicle, which was printed under King Matthew I, there are richly decorated initial letters; on one of these decorations we see the Hungarian king on horseback, with a crown on his head; he swings a high-raised spear at a madly racing bison. During the time of the Transylvanian princes, the bison was often found there, and it is quite confirmed that even in the 17th century its skin was used for various products. As proven, he lived in the mountain forests of Hungary as early as 1729 and at the end of the last century was found in the mountain forests of Szekler, not far from the area of ​​Füle*.

* The range of the bison in the Middle Bek covered Central and Eastern Europe from Germany and Hungary to the Don basin and the Caucasus. Wild bison survived for the longest time in the Caucasus and in the area of ​​Belovezhskaya Pushcha. By the 20s of the 20th century it disappeared from nature. 45 animals of the nominate subspecies are preserved in zoos, mainly in Poland. As a result of restoration work in captivity (including absorptive crossing with bison), the bison was saved as a species and returned to some of its former habitats in nature reserves in Poland and the former USSR. In the Moscow region there is a nursery at Prioksko-Terrasny reserve, groups of bison were reacclimatized in the Caucasus, in the Carpathians, and brought to the Tien Shan. Now there are about 1.5 thousand animals in the world.

Although we can confidently admit that the bison has decreased in stature, it is still a powerful animal. The bison killed in Prussia in 1555 was 7 feet high and 13 feet long, weighing 19 hundredweight and 5 pounds. Currently, the largest bison rarely reaches a height of 1.7 m, a length of 3.4 m, and a weight of 500-700 kg*.

* The height of bulls at the withers is up to 2 m, weight is up to 850 kg. Cows can be half the weight.

The bison appears to us as an example of primitive strength and power. His head is moderately large and not only not awkward, but rather slender, the forehead is high and very wide, the bridge of the nose is slightly arched, the front part is evenly narrowed towards the end. The muzzle is wide and ugly; it occupies the entire space between the large, round, obliquely located nostrils; the ears are short and rounded, the eyes are rather small, the edges of the eye sockets protrude above the cheeks; a very strong, short and raised neck forms a dewlap. On strong, but not short legs, equipped with large oval hooves and rather small calloused toes, rests a massive body: the back rises significantly from the back of the head to the middle, from where it falls to the sacrum; the tail is short and thick. The horns are spaced far apart from each other, not too thick, round and sharp; they bend slightly forward, then inward and backward. The body is covered with thick fur, consisting of long, mostly curled awn hairs and felt-like undercoat. This fur lengthens at the back of the head into a wide bang, consisting of smooth hair and falling on the forehead and temples; on the back the hair forms a high ridge; on the chin a long and rather thin beard hangs down. A large mane covers the neck and dewlap. The whole face is covered thick hair; the auricles are shaggy at the edges; at the end of the tail there is a wide and long brush, descending almost to the heel joint. The general color of the fur is light brown, the beard and tail brush are black, the legs are dark brown, the bangs are light brown. A cow's build is noticeably smaller and thinner than a bull, her horns are weaker, her mane is less developed; the coloring, however, is the same. A newly born calf is lighter in color**.

* * The bison is more different from the bison large size. but at the same time with a lighter physique. It has a not so large head, set much higher, longer and thinner horns, a curved back profile, and the back of the body is more developed. The legs are noticeably higher, the tail is longer. Wool is more uniform in length and uniform in color Brown. Branches and leaves play a greater role in their diet (in total, bison consume more than 200 plants).

Until recently, the question: whether the wild bull living in the Caucasus Mountains belongs to the same species as the bison remained unresolved. We have so far received little information about this animal. More than 200 years ago, Archangel Lamberti only mentioned, albeit rumored, the existence of a “wild buffalo” on the border of Mingrelia. At the end of the last century, Gyldenstedt found 14 bison skulls in one cave in the Caucasus. At the beginning of this century, Eichwald collected news about the whereabouts of the remaining wild bulls. But only Baer could, on the basis of the skin sent to him by Baron von Rosan in 1836, make sure that the Caucasian wild bull and bison belonged to the same species. Since then there have been many reports of the wild bull of the Caucasus. And in 1868, a young male bison was caught there and taken to the Moscow Zoological Garden. Thus, it has been established that our European wild bull - the bison - also has another habitat and can be considered insured against extermination, at least in the near future.
Nordman, Tornau and Radde meanwhile provided further information about the existence and lifestyle of the Caucasian bison, as well as about hunting for them. Nordman testified at the end of the thirties that the bison is no longer found near the mountain road from Taman to Tiflis, but that it is often found inside the mountain ranges of the Caucasus; its permanent habitat is a space of at least 200 kilometers along the coast of the Kuban to the source of the Bzybi. Relying on oral communications Tornau, he talks about a Caucasian hunt for bison in the Bolshoy Zelenchuk valley and notes that these animals are found not only on the indicated river, but also in the rocky, gorged valleys of Urup and Bolshaya Laba, as well as in coniferous forests The main ridge is below the permanent snow line. Radde informs Brandt, from whose work I borrowed the following news about bison, that back in 1865, bison lived in the vast pine forests west of the Maruhi glacier, which were found there in herds of 7-10 heads. Tornau, who lived for three years in the mountains as a captive of the mountaineers and was present during the hunt for bison, often saw the camp of these animals and the paths they made even on the steepest cliffs in order to move from the rocky valley to the stream where they could quench their thirst. Once on Zelenchuk he heard a loud noise coming from the stomping of a herd of bison and breaking branches, and soon saw up to 20 cows and calves following a huge bull, walking importantly with his head down; they were all heading to the usual watering hole*.

* The last bison of a special Caucasian subspecies (B. b. caucasicus), distinguished by very dark curly hair and some other features, were exterminated by poachers in 1925 - 1927 in the Teberda region. Now in Teberdi and other parks and reserves of the Caucasus live herds of bison, Belovezhsky in origin, as well as bison. Sedentary on the plains, in the mountains bison make vertical migrations, rising in the summer to 2000 m above sea level.

The number of bison in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, according to the census, in 1829 reached 711 heads, among which there were 633 old bulls; the following year the herd increased to 772 heads, but then decreased again to 657 due to the Polish rebellion that took place during these years. Subsequently, the strengthening of protective laws favored their reproduction so much that in 1857 the number of all bison living in Belovezhskaya Pushcha was 1898. But according to other sources, in 1863 there were only 874 bison in the herd, and since then their number has constantly fluctuated from 800 to 900 heads; there are currently up to 1,500 bulls, according to Freese.
In 1865, Prince von Plese made an attempt to settle bison on the Ples estate in Silesia, in a park of more than 600 hectares. One bull and three cows were brought from Belovezhye by rail, which got along well and even multiplied in the new place. Later, in 1871, the animals were transferred to the Metsertsitsa forest. According to Friese, in 1889 there were already 11 bison there, although nine bulls were shot during this time.
In summer and autumn, the bison lives in damp places of the forest, usually hidden in thickets; in winter it prefers drier and higher forests. Very old bulls live alone, younger ones roam in small herds, 16-20 in summer, and 30-50 in winter. Each herd has its own permanent camp and always returns to it.
Bison are active both day and night; they graze most readily in the morning and evening, sometimes even at night. Their food consists of various grasses, leaves, buds and tree bark: they gnaw off the bark from the trees as much as they can and bend young flexible trunks to the ground in order to reach the top of the head, which they completely destroy. Their favorite tree seems to be the ash, the succulent bark of which they prefer to all others; Coniferous trees, on the contrary, are not touched. In winter, they eat almost exclusively the bark and branches of deciduous trees available to them, in addition to lichens and dry grass. In Belovezhskaya Pushcha, hay cut in the meadows is stored in stacks for them; but they, not content with this, raid the haystacks of neighboring villages, breaking the fences in the process. They need fresh water to drink.
At first glance, the movements of the bison seem heavy and clumsy, but upon closer inspection, you will notice that they are quite agile.
Bison walk at a fast pace, run at a heavy but fast gallop, with their heads lowered to the ground, and their tail raised and extended*.

* Bison can jump up to 3 m in length and up to 2 m in height.

They easily wade or swim across swamps and rivers. Among the external senses, smell occupies first place; vision and hearing are less developed, and taste and touch are only mediocre. The character of bison changes over the years. Young animals are cheerful, lively, playful creatures; although they are not very meek and peace-loving, they are still not evil. The old, on the contrary, have a gloomy, even ferocious disposition; they become irritable and not in the mood for any games. Although bison usually do not touch people who do not bother them, the slightest reason can awaken their anger and make them extremely dangerous. In the summer they try to avoid people, in the winter they do not give way to anyone, and it happened more than once that the peasants had to wait a long time until the bison wanted to leave the path it occupied, along which no one could pass. Wildness, stubbornness and temper are the hallmarks of these bulls. The younger ones are more shy and fearful than the older ones. Old animals living as hermits can become a true scourge of the country. They seem to take special pleasure in teasing people. One old bull-leader took possession of the road passing through the Belovezhsky Forest for some time, overturned carriages more than once and caused many other misfortunes. The horses show fear and horror in front of the bison from afar and, sensing it, try to run away.
The mating period, which usually begins in August, and sometimes only in September, lasts two or three weeks. Around this time, bison are in their best condition, fat and strong. Before mating, they have fun with peculiar games, and there are serious battles between bulls. The animal, mad with love, seems to take special pleasure in tearing out not very thick trees from the ground and felling them. Then they begin to fight, at first, perhaps, only jokingly, then more and more seriously, and finally they madly rush at each other and clash their horns in such a way that one can only be surprised how both of them do not get hurt from such a strong blow. Little by little, the hermits gather in herds, and the fights now become even more terrible, the younger and weaker bull must either retreat or die. In 1827, a dead three-year-old bull with a crushed leg and a horn broken off at the root was found in the Belovezhsky Forest. Not only bulls were found dead at this time, but also cows*.

* During the rut, the bull has a “harem” of 2-6 females with him.

Immediately after the end of the mating period, the old bulls again separate from the herd and return to their former quiet, solitary life. Cows calve nine months after mating, usually in May or early June. Before this, they retire, find a convenient place somewhere deep in the forest and hide here with the calf for several days. In case of danger, they defend their offspring with extraordinary courage. The calf presses to the ground, raises its ears and turns them, opens its nostrils and eyes wide and fearfully looks at the enemy, towards whom the mother is rushing. Then it is dangerous for both man and beast to approach the female bison - she bravely goes against any enemy. For several days after birth, the calf follows its mother, who treats it with extraordinary tenderness. While he still does not know how to walk properly, she gently pushes him forward with her head and tries to protect him from cold and danger, placing him between her front legs; licks it clean every day; during feeding, it stands on three legs to make it easier for the calf to reach the udder, and while it sleeps, it protects its safety. Calves are the cutest, graceful animals, although from their youth they show the makings of character. They develop very slowly and reach full growth probably only in the eighth or ninth year**.

* * The weight of a newborn is about 22 kg, lactation lasts 5-6 months (sometimes up to a year), but the calf begins to eat grass from 2-3 weeks. Sometimes the calf remains with its mother for up to 2 years, despite the fact that, under favorable conditions, the female brings new offspring next spring. Puberty occurs at 1.5-2 years, but animals reach their final size by 5-8 years. Maximum life expectancy is about 40 years.

The age to which bison can live is determined to be approximately 30-50 years. Cows die 10 years earlier than bulls, but the latter usually become blind or lose teeth in old age, then they are no longer able to feed properly, cannot bite young branches, quickly weaken and finally die.
Compared to other bulls, bison reproduce slowly. In Belovezhskaya Pushcha they conducted an observation and found out that cows are pregnant once every three years, and in more than mature age remain infertile for several years in a row. In 1829, out of 258 cows, only 93 calved; of the rest, most were already infertile, while others were still too young.
These strong animals are excellent at defending themselves against enemies. Bears and wolves can only be dangerous to calves, and then only if for some reason the mother is no longer alive and the cub is defenseless. However, it happens that when deep snow falls, hungry wolves chase adult bison until exhaustion and finally overcome them.
Even in the time of Julius Caesar, a hunter who killed one aurochs or bison acquired great fame; all ancient songs praise such heroes. In the Middle Ages, knights and barons fought valiantly against bison and aurochs. Some hunted on horseback, others on foot, but they always chose the spear as their weapon of attack. Two of them went out to confront the beast: one approached the mad beast, the other tried to distract the bison’s attention from the attacker by shouting and waving a red scarf; at this time the first one thrust a spear into the body of the animal. Simple hunters, in order to take possession of a powerful animal, built a deep hole on its path and killed the bison that fell into it.
According to the legends with which the history of Hungary and Transylvania is so rich, bison hunting was the most militant activity of the Magyar knighthood and the nobility of neighboring countries. During the time of the first Hungarian kings, hunting became the exclusive right of the king or sovereign prince. There are many posts on this topic. “In the same year (1534), says one German manuscript, wild bulls, known in Hungary as Begin or Beogin, living in herds in the mountains of Zhurzhevo in the country of the Szeklers, caused a lot of harm and attacked men and women who went into the forest. Therefore, Moylar Istvan, according to ancient custom, called the old commanders for a big hunt on St. Fabian’s day. Then many gentlemen and nobles gathered, who hunted successfully and also feasted decently." And 100 years later they were hunting with the same pomp, as can be seen from the letter of George Racoca I, Prince of Transylvania to Paul Bornemisser in 1643.
In Belovezhskaya Pushcha, the rulers of past centuries appeared with a large retinue, convened forest rangers and forced the surrounding peasants to become beaters. A detachment of 200-300 people had to drive the bison to the place where the hunters stood on a safe platform. One brilliant hunt organized by the Polish king Augustus III in 1752 is still evidenced by a six-meter pyramid of white sandstone with an inscription in German and Polish languages; in one day 42 bison, 13 elk and two roe deer were killed; only one queen shot 20 bison without missing even once. On the eighteenth and nineteenth of October 1860, the Russian emperor organized a hunt: the sovereign himself shot six bison bulls and one calf, two elk and six fallow deer, three roe deer, four wolves, one badger, one fox and one hare. The Grand Duke of Weimar and Princes Karl and Albrecht of Prussia killed eight more bison. This hunt was described in detail in a special essay in Russian.
D. V. Dolmatov, chief forester of the state forests of the Grodno province, tells how these animals were caught. The Emperor promised Queen Victoria two bison for the menagerie and therefore ordered several heads to be caught. This was in July. At dawn, 300 beaters and 80 hunters gathered with guns loaded with gunpowder alone and surrounded the hunted herd. Dolmatov and his companion, Count Kiselev, who brought the royal order, saw a herd that was located on a hill. The calves jumped merrily, throwing up the sand high with their nimble legs, returning from time to time to their mothers, rubbing against them, licking them, and then jumping merrily again. Suddenly the sound of a horn interrupted this idyll. The herd jumped up in fear, the calves timidly clung to their mothers. When the barking of the dogs was heard, the herd hastily gathered in the usual order: the calves were in front, and the adults formed a rear guard, protecting them from the attacks of the dogs. The old bison broke through the chains of the beaters and rushed further, not paying attention to the people, screams and shots. I was immediately lucky enough to catch two young bison: a calf about three months old was captured without much difficulty; another, about fifteen months old, knocked eight people to the ground and ran away, but, pursued by dogs, was caught in the garden of a forester. Four calves, one male and three females, were caught later, one female was only a few days old.
I saw bison in the menagerie in Schönbrunn. They lived for many years in the same stable, in front of which there was a yard fenced with thick logs. Very strong oak fence posts, dug a meter into the ground and, moreover, reinforced with supports, were fastened with crossbars. When I visited, the cow had a suckling calf, and she expressed concern for it with all her behavior. To get a better look at the rare animals, I came closer to the fence, when suddenly the cow lowered its head and rushed at me, mooing and sticking out far long tongue, and threw her head against the beams with such force that even the oak pillars shook. Another creature would have crushed its skull with such a blow: the bison, without the slightest difficulty, repeated its exercises three or four times in a row.
In our zoological gardens, with favorable care, bison survive well, mate without difficulty and reproduce even more than in the wild. According to Schepf's observations, the pregnancy period lasts 270-274 days. A mother treats her newborn with extreme tenderness, unless touched by a human hand; she becomes enraged and takes out every uninvited touch of the overseer on the defenseless calf. The bull should be separated from the pregnant cow, since the family life of these animals is impossible in a cramped room. In Dresden, on May 22, 1865, a newly born calf was picked up by its parent on its horns and thrown over a fence; here he again stood on his feet and was brought into the stable to his mother, who had been separated from the bull. The cow, having sniffed her calf and probably noticing that human hands had already touched it, threw it up and trampled it to death. Many weeks before calving, the meekest bison cow becomes wild and vicious, and after calving and starting to feed the calf, she behaves in most cases as I described above.
The taste of bison meat is a cross between the meat of domestic bulls and venison; The meat of cows and calves is especially famous. The Poles considered salted bison meat an excellent delicacy and used it as gifts to the courts of sovereigns. The hide produces strong and durable, but soft and tough leather, which is used for making belts and trims.
Horns and hooves are attributed medicinal properties. Our ancestors made drinking vessels from beautiful, strong horns. In the Caucasus they are still used instead of cups. At a dinner at which one Caucasian prince honored General Rozan, instead of glasses, 50-70 bison horns, separated by silver, were used.
The same fate that the bison suffered for centuries befell its only relative - bison(Bison bison)*, incredibly short term, one might say, in one decade.

* Bison entered America from Eurasia in glacial period. Their different forms will replace each other in the tundra-steppes, forests and prairies; some species were much larger than the modern steppe bison (Bison bison); the span of their long horns reached 2 meters or more. Despite the common American name (Buffalo), bison, like bison, are more closely related to bulls than to buffalos.

Several decades ago, millions of these powerful animals roamed the vast expanses of North America; at present there are no more than a few hundred buffalo there. History does not know, and will never record on its pages, another example of such systematic destruction, such ruthless mass extermination for the insignificant benefit of harmless and useful animals. Moreover, the government did nothing to protect them. Now only bleaching bones scattered across distant deserts indicate the once countless herds of North American bison.

The number of surviving bison reached, according to the exact information of William Gornedey, on January 1, 1889, up to 835 animals, including those 200 bulls who live under government protection in Yellowstone Park. This extermination of bison began in the seventies, when the railroads were built

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Males, and mostly females, have horns. The horns of bovids are permanent, irreplaceable outgrowths. The absence of horns (polledness) in males is sometimes observed as a domestication feature of the frontal bones, which are covered on the outside with horny sheaths made of a modified epidermal layer of the skin.

Unlike the pronghorn family (Antilocapridae), the horn sheaths do not fall off or change throughout the animal's life. The growth of antlers, in contrast to deer (Cervidae), occurs not at the top, but at the base; the top represents its oldest part, formed in the first stages of formation. Characteristic is a periodic increase and decrease in the growth of horns, which is expressed in the formation of rings on the surface of the horny sheaths and is obviously associated with the cyclical function of the reproductive system.

The shape of the horns is very diverse, but never branched. The horns may look like simple matches; are arched forward or backward; snail-shaped; rolled or twisted into a spiral; straight, standing vertically or directed backwards. The twisting and folding of horns can be homonymous or heteronymous. The length of the horns can be small, not exceeding half the length of the skull or, conversely, exceed the latter several times.

Habitat and distribution of bovids

Europe, Asia, Africa, North America and adjacent islands. Absent in Australia, South America, Madagascar and Sakhalin. They are acclimatized in New Zealand. At home, they are distributed all over the world.

Evolution of bovids

The bovid family is phylogenetically the youngest and most numerous of the modern groups of ungulates, which has not yet experienced its heyday. The roots of bovids lead to the Lower Oligocene deer (Tragulidae). Their immediate ancestor or original form is not known, but, probably, the genus Gelocus Aymard, which lived in Europe in the Lower Oligocene, was very close to that. Gelocus did not have horns, the ulna was independent, but the fibula was greatly reduced. The side toes probably touched the ground when walking. On the forelimbs, the central (III and IV) metapodia were separate, but on the hind limbs the corresponding bones fused and formed the tarsus. Both proximal and distal rudiments were preserved from the lateral metapodia. The molars were of an extremely brachyodont type, the upper saber-shaped canines were preserved, but the upper incisors had already disappeared, and the canines of the lower jaw were functionally incisors. The premolars had an extremely primitive structure, and the first of them had already disappeared in the upper jaw, while it was still preserved in the lower jaw.

Forms intermediate between deer and true bovids are not yet known. In the Middle Miocene of Europe, there lived antelopes that had permanent horns, but also had extremely primitively structured brachiodont molars of the skull and a long, horizontally located post-horn part. They could be considered the initial forms for all subsequent bovids. But in layers of the same age in Europe and even earlier in Mongolia, relatively highly specialized representatives of the family were found, which lead us to assume that the departure of the ancestors of bovids from the common trunk of Resog occurred no later than the Upper or even Middle Oligocene. The homeland of bovids should be considered the Eurasian continent, where at its junction with Africa lay the primary center of settlement of this group. The secondary centers were, on the one hand, Central Asia, and on the other, the regions adjacent to India, to the west of the latter.

A characteristic feature of bovids - horns covered with an irreplaceable sheath - apparently did not appear immediately in the history of this group. The original forms probably did not have horns or had small outgrowths of the frontal bones, covered with periodically shed caps of keratinized skin. The original purpose of the horns is to decorate the males and serve as a tournament weapon. They began to serve as weapons of defense against enemies and attacks later.

Classification of bovids

The division of bovids into bulls, goats, rams and antelopes, which has existed since the time of Pallas, does not correspond to modern ideas about their phylogenetic relationships and therefore is currently abandoned by most zoologists. The apparently artificial group of “antelopes” in the system has been eliminated, since many of them are genetically closer to bulls or goats with rams than to other antelopes. However, there is no agreement on the relationship of individual groups of Bovidae to each other and the related division of the entire family into subordinate groups, and its classification is carried out in different ways. The division of bovids into six subfamilies is generally accepted.

1. Real antelopes(subfamily) - Antilopinae. With a few exceptions, only males have horns; the bases are located above the eye sockets, massive, without internal cavities inside the rods. The nostrils are located close to each other; the distance between them is no more than the height of the upper lip (from its lower edge to the nostrils). The mammary gland has four nipples. The posterior part of the skull is long, longer than the length of the forehead. The frontal bones are short, no more than 36% of the main length of the skull. The auditory bubbles are swollen. The middle pair of incisors is greatly expanded compared to the others and has the shape of asymmetrical blades. Distribution: Africa, Front, Middle, Central and South Asia, some areas southern Siberia(Altai, Tuva, southern Transbaikalia).

2. Duikers(subfamily) - Cephalophinae. Females often have horns, they are massive, without internal cavities inside the rods. The nostrils are located close to each other, the distance between them is no more than the height of the upper lip from its lower edge to the nostrils. The mammary gland has four nipples. Unlike other bovids, the preorbital glands are located midway between the nostrils and the eyes and open into a series of linearly spaced small holes on a hairless area of ​​the skin. Distinctive features in the skull there are also very large preorbital fossae, in the formation of which the nasal bones, greatly expanded in the posterior half, and the bases of the horny processes, shifted far beyond the orbits, take part, without extending laterally beyond the boundaries of the braincase. The posterior part of the skull is significantly shorter than the length of the forehead. The frontal bones are long, more than 36% of the main length of the skull. The auditory bubbles are swollen. The middle pair of incisors is greatly expanded compared to the others and has the shape of asymmetrical blades. Distribution: Africa south of the northern tropics. More than 30 species of duiker are morphologically close to each other and are usually combined into one genus Cephalophus N. Smith.

Infraclass - placental

Family – bovids

Literature:

1. I.I. Sokolov "Fauna of the USSR, Hoofed Animals" Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1959.