In what year was Julius Caesar born? Three myths about Julius Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar - commander, politician, writer, dictator, high priest. He came from an ancient Roman family of the ruling class and consistently sought all government positions and led a line of political opposition to the senatorial aristocracy. He was merciful, but sent a number of his main opponents to execution.

The Yuliev family originated from a noble family, which, according to legend, descended from the goddess Venus.

Julius Caesar's mother, Avrelia Kotta, was from the noble and wealthy Aurelius family. My paternal grandmother came from the ancient Roman family of Marcii. Ancus Marcius was the fourth king of Ancient Rome from 640 to 616. BC e.

Childhood and youth

We have not received exact data about the time of the emperor’s birth. Today it is generally accepted that he was born in 100 BC. e., however, the German historian Theodor Mommsen believes that it was 102 BC. e., and the French historian Jerome Carcopino points to 101 BC. e. Both July 12 and July 13 are considered birthdays.

Gaius Julius spent his childhood in the poor ancient Roman region of Subura. Parents gave their son good education , he studied Greek, poetry and oratory, learned to swim, rode horseback and developed physically. In 85 BC. e. the family lost its breadwinner and Caesar, after initiation, became the head of the family, since none of the older male relatives remained alive.

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Beginning of a career as a politician

In Asia

In the 80s BC. e. The military leader Lucius Cornelius Cinna proposed the person of Gaius Julius to replace the flamenes, priest of the god Jupiter. But for this he needed to get married in a solemn ceremony. ancient rite confarreatio and Lucius Cornelius chose his daughter Cornelia Cinilla as his wife for Caesar. In 76 BC. e. The couple had a daughter, Julia (Ivlia).

Today, historians are no longer sure about the inauguration ceremony of Julius. On the one hand, this would prevent him from engaging in politics, but, on the other hand, the appointment became in a good way strengthen the position of the Caesars.

After the betrothal of Gaius Julius and Cornelia, there was a riot in the troops and the military attacked Cinna, he was killed. The dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla was established, after which Caesar, as a relative of the opponent of the new ruler, was outlawed. He disobeyed Sulla, refused to divorce his wife and left. The dictator searched for the disobedient man for a long time, but, as time passed, he pardoned him at the request of his relatives.
Caesar soon joined Marcus Minucius Thermus, governor of the Roman province of Asia Minor - Asia.

Ten years ago, his father held this position. Julius became an equites (equites) of Marcus Minucius, a patrician who fought on horseback. The first task that Therm gave to his contubernal was to negotiate with the Bithynia king Nycomed IV. As a result of successful negotiations, the ruler transfers Therma a flotilla to take the city of Mytilene on the island of Lesvos, which did not accept the results of the First Mithridatic War (89-85 BC) and resisted the Roman people. The city was successfully captured.

For the operation on Lesbos, Gaius Julius received a civilian crown - a military award, and Marcus Minucius resigned. In 78 BC. e. Lucius Sulla dies in Italy and Caesar decides to return to his homeland.

Roman events

In 78 BC. e. The military leader Marcus Lepidus organized a revolt of the Italians (Italici) against the laws of Lucius. Caesar then did not accept the invitation to become a participant. In 77-76. BC e Gaius Julius tried to sue Sulla's supporters: politician Cornelius Dolabella and commander Antonius Hybrida. But he failed to do this, despite his brilliant indictment speeches.

After this, Julius decided to visit the island of Rhodes (Rhodus) and the school of rhetoric of Apollonius Molon, but on the way there he was captured by pirates, from where he was later rescued by Asian ambassadors for fifty talents. Wanting revenge, the former captive equipped several ships and himself took the pirates prisoner, executing them by crucifixion. In 73 BC. e. Caesar was included in the collegial governing body of the pontiffs, where his uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta had previously ruled.

In 69 BC. e. Caesar's wife Cornelia died during the birth of her second child; the baby also did not survive. At the same time, Caesar's aunt, Julia Maria, also dies. Soon Gaius Julius becomes a Roman ordinary magistrate (magistratus), which gives him the opportunity to enter the Senate. He was sent to Far Spain (Hispania Ulterior), where he took upon himself the resolution of financial issues and the execution of orders from the propraetor Antistius Vetus.

In 67 BC. e. Caesar married Pompeia Sulla, Sulla's granddaughter. In 66 BC. e. Gaius Julius becomes caretaker of the most important public road in Rome, the Appian Way (Via Appia), and finances its repair.

College of Magistrates and elections

In 66 BC. e. Gaius Julius is elected magistrate of Rome. His responsibilities include expanding construction in the city, maintaining trade and public events. In 65 BC. e. he held such memorable Roman games with gladiators that he managed to amaze his sophisticated citizens.

In 64 BC. e. Gaius Julius was the head of the judicial commission (Quaestiones perpetuae) for criminal trials, which allowed him to bring to account and punish many of Sulla's henchmen.

In 63 BC. e. Quintus Metellus Pius died, vacating the lifelong seat of Pontifex Maximus. Caesar decides to put forward his own candidacy for her. The opponents of Gaius Julius are the consul Quintus Catulus Capitolinus and the commander Publius Vatia Isauricus. After numerous bribes, Caesar wins the election by a large margin and moves to live on the Sacred Road (via Sacra) in the state housing of the pontiff.

Participation in the conspiracy

In 65 and 63 BC e. One of the political conspirators, Lucius Sergius Catilina, twice attempted a coup. Marcus Tullius Cicero, being an opponent of Caesar, tried to accuse him of participating in conspiracies, but could not provide the necessary evidence and failed. Marcus Porcius Cato informal leader Roman Senate, also testified against Caesar and ensured that Gaius Julius left the Senate pursued by threats.

First triumvirate

Praetura

In 62 BC. BC, using the powers of praetor, Caesar wanted to transfer the reconstruction of the plan of Jupiter Capitolinus (Iuppiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus) from Quintus Catulus Capitolinus to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, but the Senate did not support this bill.

After the proposal of the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos, supported by Caesar, to send Pompey with troops to Rome to pacify Catiline, the Senate removed both Quintus Caecilius and Gaius Julius from their posts, but the second was quickly restored.
In the fall, the trial of the Catiline conspirators took place. One of its participants, Lucius Iulius Vettius, who spoke out against Caesar, was arrested, as was the judge Novius Nigerus, who accepted the report.

In 62 BC. e. Caesar's wife Pompey organized a festival in their house dedicated to the Good Goddess (Bona Dea), which only women could attend. But one of the politicians, Publius Clodius Pulcher, came to the festival; he dressed up as a woman and wanted to meet Pompeii. Senators found out about what happened, considered it a shame and demanded a trial. Gaius Julius did not wait for the outcome of the trial and divorced Pompeia so as not to make his personal life public. Moreover, the spouses never produced any heirs.

In Farther Spain

In 61 BC. e. the trip of Gaius Julius to Far Spain as propraetor was postponed for a long time due to the presence large quantity debts The commander Marcus Licinius Crassus vouched for Gaius Julius and paid part of his loans.

When the new propraetor arrived at his destination, he had to deal with the dissatisfaction of the inhabitants with the Roman authorities. Caesar gathered a detachment of militia and began to fight the “bandits.” The commander with an army of twelve thousand approached the Serra da Estrela mountain range and ordered the local residents to leave there. They refused to move and Gaius Julius attacked them. The highlanders went across the Atlantic Ocean to the Berlenga Islands, killing all their pursuers.

But Caesar, after a series of thoughtful operations and strategic maneuvers, still conquers the popular resistance, after which he was awarded the honorary military title of emperor, victor.

Gaius Julius was also active in the daily affairs of the subordinate lands. He presided over court hearings, introduced reforms in taxation, and eradicated the practice of sacrifice.

During his period of activity in Spain, Caesar was able to pay off most of his debts thanks to rich gifts and bribes from residents of the wealthy south. At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Gaius Julius relinquishes his assigned powers ahead of schedule and returns to Rome.

Triumvirate

Rumors about the victories of the propraetor soon reached the Senate and its members considered that Caesar's return should be accompanied by a triumph (triumphus) - a ceremonial entry into the capital. But then, before the triumphant event, Gaius Julius was not allowed, by law, to enter the city. And since he also planned to take part in the upcoming elections for the post of consul, where his personal presence was required for registration, the commander abandoned his triumph and began to fight for a new position.

By bribing voters, Caesar nevertheless becomes consul, and with him the military leader Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus wins the elections.

In order to strengthen his own political position and existing power, Caesar enters into a secret conspiracy with Pompey and Crassus, uniting two influential politicians with opposing views. As a result of the conspiracy, a powerful alliance of military leaders and politicians appears, called the First Triumvirate (triumviratus - “ union of three husbands").

Consulate

In the first days of the consulate, Caesar began to submit new bills to the Senate for consideration. The first agrarian law was adopted, according to which the poor could receive plots of land from the state, which it bought from large landowners. First of all, land was given large families. To prevent speculation, new landowners had no right to resell their plots for the next twenty years. The second bill concerned the taxation of farmers in the province of Asia; their contributions were reduced by one third. The third law dealt with bribes and extortion; it was adopted unanimously, unlike the first two.

To strengthen the connection with Pompey, Gaius Julius married his daughter Julia to him. Caesar himself decides to marry for the third time, this time his wife is Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus.

Proconsul

Gallic War

When Gaius Julius, after the expiration of his term, resigned as consul, he continued to conquer lands for Rome. During the Gallic War (Bellum Gallicum), Caesar, displaying extraordinary diplomacy and strategy, skillfully took advantage of the disagreements of the Gallic leaders. In 55 BC. e. He defeated the Germans who crossed the Rhine (Rhein), after which in ten days he built a bridge 400 meters long and attacked them himself, the first in the history of Rome. The first Roman general to invade Britain Great Britain), where he conducted several brilliant military operations, after which he was forced to leave the island.

In 56 BC. e. A regular meeting of the triumvirs took place in Lucca, at which it was decided to continue and develop political support for each other.

By 50 BC. e. Gaius Julius suppressed all the uprisings, completely subjugating his former territories to Rome.

Civil war

In 53 BC. e. Crassus dies and the triumvirate ceases to exist. A struggle began between Pompey and Julius. Pompey became the head of the republican government, and the Senate did not extend the powers of Gaius Julius in Gaul. Then Caesar decides to revolt. Having gathered soldiers, with whom he was extremely popular, he crosses the border river Rubicone and, seeing no resistance, captures some cities. Frightened Pompey and his close senators flee the capital. Caesar invites the rest of the Senate to rule the country together.

In Rome, Caesar is appointed dictator. Pompey's attempts to prevent Gaius Julius failed, the fugitive himself was killed in Egypt, but Caesar did not accept the enemy's head as a gift; he mourned his death. While in Egypt, Caesar helps Queen Cleopatra, conquers Alexandria, and in North Africa annexes Numidia to Rome.

Murder

The return of Gaius Julius to the capital is accompanied by a magnificent triumph. He does not skimp on awards for his soldiers and commanders, arranges feasts for the citizens of the city, organizes games and mass spectacles. Over the next ten years, he is proclaimed "emperor" and "father of the fatherland." He issues many laws, including laws on citizenship, on the structure of the state, against luxury, on unemployment, on the issuance of free bread, changes the time system and others.

Caesar was idolized and given great honor by erecting his statues and painting his portraits. He had the best security, he was personally involved in the appointment of people to government positions and their removal.

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Gaius Julius Caesar (100-44 BC) - Roman politician and commander. In 68 he was elected quaestor, in 65 aedile. By organizing magnificent shows and grain distributions, Caesar gained popularity among the people. In 62 he became praetor. Commanding troops in Farther Spain, Caesar in 61. made several campaigns against the Kallaiki and Lusitanians, during which he made a fortune and gained military glory. His star rose in 59, when he was elected consul. Having concluded an agreement with Marcus Crassus and Gnaeus Pompey, Caesar shared power over Rome with them. Both Gaul and Illyria were assigned to him as provinces.

In 58-51 Caesar waged numerous wars that ended with the subjugation of the free Gallic tribes inhabiting the territory between the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and the Rhine to Rome. In 58, he defeated the Helvetii and the German leader Ariovistus; in 57

Caesar launched a campaign against the Belgae, and in 56 against the Veneti and Aquitani. In 54 he crossed to Britain and conquered a number of tribes. Meanwhile, the Gauls rose up in the liberation struggle, led by the leader Vercingetorix. It took Caesar two years to cope with the Gauls. In the summer of 52 he surrounded the rebels in Alesia. All attempts by the Gauls to break through the blockade ring were unsuccessful; in October 52, Vercingetorix surrendered. Most of the Gallic tribes after this hastened to lay down their arms, and in 51 Caesar finally pacified Gaul. Meanwhile, conflicts in the Roman state led to strained relations between Caesar and the Senate. Caesar refused to surrender his province to the successor appointed by the Senate. On January 10, 49, he crossed the border along the Rubicon River and marched an army towards Rome. There was no resistance to him. Caesar easily captured Rome and Italy. His political opponents, united around Gnaeus Pompey, fled to Epirus. In March 49, Caesar went to Spain to neutralize the seven legions stationed there under the command of Pompey's legate Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius. On August 2 he won a victory at Ilerda and returned to Rome in October.

In January 48, Caesar landed in Epirus. In July, having failed at Dyrrhachium, he retreated to Thessaly and there on August 9 he completely defeated Pompey at the Battle of Pharsalus. Pursuing the fleeing Pompey, Caesar arrived in Egypt at the end of September 48, where he learned of the death of Pompey by order of the Egyptian king Ptolemy XIII. This allowed him to intervene in Egyptian affairs. In the so-called War of Alexandria, Caesar took the side of Queen Cleopatra. With only a small force at his disposal, Caesar won the Alexandrian War and established Cleopatra on the Egyptian throne. caesar political power rule

In the summer of 47, Caesar marched to Asia Minor against the Bosporan king Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates VI Eupator, and on August 2, 47, defeated him. In October, Caesar landed in Africa, where the remnants of the Pompeians consolidated. At the Battle of Thapsus on April 6, 46, he destroyed their troops and defeated the Pompeians' ally, the Numidian king Juba I. In May, with a triple triumph for the Gallic, Alexandrian and Numidian Wars, he entered Rome and was declared dictator.

In December 46, Pompey's son Magna Gnaeus took possession of Spain. Caesar arrived in Spain and finally destroyed the armed opposition at the Battle of Munda. Upon returning to Rome, he began to carry out reforms to strengthen the state, shaken by continuous wars. Caesar's plans also included two major campaigns against the Parthians and Dacians. However, they never took place: on March 15, 44, Caesar was killed by conspirators from his inner circle.

Suetonius on Julius Caesar:

"They say he was tall, fair-skinned, well-built, slightly full face, black and lively eyes. He was in excellent health: only towards the end of his life did he begin to experience sudden fainting spells and night terrors, and twice during classes he had epileptic fits. He looked after his body too carefully, and not only cut and shaved, but also plucked his hair, and many reproached him for this. His disgraceful baldness was unbearable to him, as it often brought ridicule from his ill-wishers. Therefore, he usually combed his thinning hair from the crown of his head to his forehead; Therefore, he accepted with the greatest pleasure and exercised the right to constantly wear a laurel wreath."

Guy Julius Caesar (G. Julius Caesar) - one of greatest commanders and statesmen of Rome and all times. The son of a father of the same name and the brilliantly educated Aurelia, he was born on July 12, 100 BC, and died on March 15, 44. Caesar came from an ancient patrician family, which considered the Trojan Aeneas its ancestor. Among his teachers are the rhetoricians M. Anthony Gnitho and Apollonius (Molon) from Rhodes. The leader of the Roman aristocrats (optimates) Sulla pursued the young Caesar, close relative his political enemy, the head of the democrats (populars) Maria. Despite the youth of Gaius Julius, Sulla considered him a dangerous man. He said that “there are a hundred Maries sitting in this boy.” Only thanks to the urgent requests of his influential relatives did Sulla not subject Caesar to proscriptions. However, the young man then had to leave for Asia. Only after the death of Sulla (78) Caesar returned to Rome, but soon left it again to improve his eloquence with the rhetorician Apollonius in Rhodes.

From the year of Julius Caesar's second return to the capital (73), his political activity began. Closely related by family relations to the Democratic Party, he tried with boundless generosity to win the favor of the people and restore their political influence by destroying the aristocratic institutions of Sulla. In 68, Caesar was quaestor in Spain south of the Ebro, in 65 he became an aedile, in 63 high priest (pontiff). He prudently stayed away from the democratic conspiracy of Catiline, but still, when analyzing the case, he tried to spare its participants from the death penalty. After fulfilling his praetorship (62), Julius Caesar went to his assigned province of Spain beyond the Ebro and paid off his huge debts from there. Returning to Italy the following year, he put forward his candidacy for consul. The first person of the Roman state was then Gnaeus Pompeius, who was at enmity with the aristocratic Senate. Shortly before this, Pompey won brilliant victories in the East over the kings of Pontus and Armenia (Mithridates and Tigranes). But the Senate now refused to approve the order introduced by Pompey in Asia and did not give a worthy reward to his soldiers. The indignant Pompey united (60) against the Senate optimates with the largest Roman banker, Crassus, and with Caesar, who had already become one of the main leaders of the popular party. This union of “three husbands” was called the first triumvirate.

Lifetime bust of Julius Caesar

Elected as consul for 59 thanks to the influence of the triumvirate, Caesar, not paying attention to the protests of his optimate colleague Bibulus, distributed land to 20 thousand of the poorest citizens, attracted the equestrian (commercial and industrial) class to his side by deducting a third from payments for the collection of taxes, fulfilled Pompey's wishes. After Julius Caesar assumed the consular post, the triumvirate arranged for his appointment for five years as governor of the provinces of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul - the regions where the country closest to Italy stood. military force. The most dangerous opponents of the triumvirate, supporters of the Senate Cicero and Cato the Younger, were removed from Rome under the guise of honorary assignments.

In 58, Julius Caesar went to his province. During his governorship, which was then extended, he conquered all of Gaul to Rome and created for himself an army that was unconditionally loyal and battle-tested. In the first year, he defeated the Helvetian tribe at Bibracta (near present-day Autun), which planned to move deeper into Gaul, as well as the Suevi prince of the Germans, Ariovistus, who, having conquered the strong people of the Aedui, considered himself the ruler of all Gallic lands. These successes extended Roman influence as far as the Seine. In 57 and 56 Caesar defeated the Belgian, Armoric and Aquitanian tribes. To secure the borders of Gaul, Gaius Julius crossed the Rhine in 55 and 53 and crossed into Britain in 55 and 54. When in 52, after a difficult struggle, he suppressed the general uprising of the Gallic peoples led by the brave and cautious Arverni leader Vercingetorix (the main battles took place at Gergovia and Alesia), the conquest of the country was finally strengthened. From this time on, Gaul began to quickly assimilate Roman morals and Roman institutions.

Continuing to quarrel with the Senate in Rome, the triumvirs sealed their alliance at a meeting in Lucca (56). There it was determined that Pompey and Crassus would become consuls for the year 55, and Caesar's Gallic governorship would be extended for another five years. The optimates' opposition to the decisions of the Lucca Conference turned out to be powerless. However, soon the death of Caesar’s daughter, Julia, the former wife of Pompey (54), and the death of Crassus, who wanted to gain military laurels in the East (53), weakened the connection between the two surviving triumvirs. Concerned about Caesar's growing influence after the Gallic conquests, Pompey approached the Senate, which made him sole consul for 52. Caesar sought a consulate for the year 48, because only in this way could he, after a secondary governorship, achieve approval of his orders in Gaul. He asked permission to remain in his province until taking office and to run for a consular post in absentia. But the optimates decided to separate him from the army; mediation negotiations were unsuccessful. In the early days of 49, the Senate decreed that Caesar must immediately disband his troops or be declared an enemy of the state. The Senate gave Pompey the authority of commander-in-chief.

Bust of Caesar in military uniform

Although Julius Caesar most often acted generously with his opponents, the new monarchical system continued to provoke fierce resistance. It also seemed to many that Caesar wanted to eliminate the remnant of the republican appearance and openly put on himself the royal diadem. The campaign against the Parthians conceived by Gaius Julius was supposed to give rise to the granting of royal dignity to him. A number of his former followers conspired against Caesar, many of whom were showered with his favors. They were led by praetors Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. The convening of the Senate on the Ides of March (March 15), 44, in the Curia of Pompey for a meeting on granting Caesar royal power outside Italy accelerated the determination of the conspirators. They attacked Gaius Julius right in the meeting room. With 23 wounds, he fell at the statue of Pompey. They said that Caesar did not even resist when he saw Brutus, whom many considered his illegitimate son, among his killers. (For more details, see articles

Bust of Julius Caesar from the collection of the British Museum. Photograph of Roger Fenton, commissioned by the British Museum. Approximately 1856 Royal Photographic Society

Julius Caesar is probably the most famous character of ancient history, and indeed of all ancient history. Only Alexander the Great can compete with him. Countless volumes of scientific works, popular biographies and fiction. He was played in films by such outstanding actors as John Gielgud, Rex Harrison, Klaus Maria Brandauer and Ciaran Hinds. Around any outstanding historical figure sooner or later the husk of myths and legends grows. Caesar did not escape this either.

Myth 1. His name was Caius Julius Caesar

Let's start with the name. Caesar, like almost every Roman boy from a good family, had three names: firstly, praenomen, or personal name (Gaius), - their Ancient Rome there were very few, Guy being among the most common; secondly, a nomen, or family name (Iulius), and thirdly, a cognomen, originally a nickname with some dictionary meaning, attached to a branch of the clan and becoming hereditary (Cicero - Pea, Naso - Nosed). What the word Caesar meant is unknown. There were many explanations: Caesar himself claimed that it was “elephant” in the “Moorish language,” and Pliny the Elder raised the word to the verb caedo, “to cut, cut,” arguing that the very first Caesar (not ours, but one of his ancestors) was born from a cut uterus, that is, as a result of a procedure later known as C-section. Already thanks to the glory of our Julius Caesar, his cognomen in various forms entered many languages of the world as a synonym for ruler - Caesar, Kaiser, Tsar.

The variant Kai (not Gaius) Julius Caesar has been around in everyday speech for a very long time. It is also found in literature: for example, in the fantastic story “Ghosts” by Turgenev, in “The Golden Calf” by Ilf and Petrov, or in “The White Guard” by Bulgakov. A search through the corpus of Russian literature texts produces 18 results for the query “Caius Julius” versus 21 for “Gai Julius,” almost equally divided. Ivan Ilyich in Tolstoy recalls an example from the “Logic” of the German Kantian philosopher Johann Gottfried Kiesewetter: “Caius is a man, people are mortal, therefore Caius is mortal” (in Kiesewetter: “Alle Menschen sind sterblich, Caius ist ein Mensch, also ist Caius sterblich” ). This is also, of course, “Caius” Julius Caesar. In languages with Latin-based graphics, the variant Caius instead of Gaius also continues to be found - not only in novels, but also, for example, in the books of the modern British popularizer of antiquity Adrian Goldsworthy. This writing is the result not so much of a misunderstanding, but of a peculiar ancient Roman idea of fidelity to tradition.

Although the sounds [k] and [g] have always been different in Latin, this difference was not initially reflected in writing. The reason was that the Etruscan (or some other Northern Italic) alphabet, from which Latin developed, did not have a stop [g]. When the volume of written information began to increase and literacy began to spread (in antiquity, in principle, there were not many free people who could not read and write at least at a primitive level), it became necessary to somehow distinguish between letters denoting dissimilar sounds, and C was attached ponytail As linguist Alexander Piperski notes, the letter G is an innovation with a diacritic like the letter E, only more successful in historical perspective. The letter E, as is known, was popularized by Karamzin, and Roman lovers of antiquities recorded that G was introduced into the alphabet by a certain Spurius Carvilius, a freedman and the first owner of a private property in Rome. primary school- in the 3rd century BC. e.

The capital C, representing the sound [g], was often used as the initial of the names Guy and Gnaeus (C and CN respectively). Such initials were found in dedicatory inscriptions, on tombstones, and in other contexts of increased importance. The Romans were very neurotic about this kind of thing and preferred not to change anything about them. Therefore, in the inscriptions starting from the 2nd century BC. e. we often see the letter G where it should be (for example, in the word AVG, short for Augustus), but at the same time the name Guy is abbreviated in the old fashioned way as S. The same with the name Gnei, which is abbreviated as CN (however, the form “Knei” ", as far as I know, is not found anywhere in Russian).

Most likely, it was this ambiguity that caused the split of the popular Roman name into the correct Guy and the erroneous Kai. Kai from Andersen's "The Snow Queen" is most likely not related to Caesar - this is a common Scandinavian name, and there are many other etymological hypotheses about its origin, mainly going back to the Frisian languages.

Myth 2. We know what he looked like

Let's look at some sculptural portraits.

The first is the so-called Tusculan portrait, excavated in 1825 by Lucien Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon I). It is kept in the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Several more sculptural images, stored in the National Roman Museum, the Hermitage, the New Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, etc., belong to the same type.

Tusculan portrait from the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Dated to 50–40 BC.© Gautier Poupeau / Wikimedia Commons

Copy from a Tusculan portrait. 1st century BC e. - I century AD e.© J. Paul Getty Trust

Copy from a Roman original of the 1st century AD. e. Italy, 16th century© State Hermitage Museum

The second common type of portrait of Caesar is the so-called bust of Chiaramonti (now kept in the Vatican Museums). Adjacent to it is another bust from Turin, sculptures from Parma, Vienna and a number of others.

Bust of Chiaramonti. 30-20 BC ancientrome.ru

The famous “Green Caesar” is kept in the Berlin Antique Collection.

"Green Caesar" from the exhibition of the Old Museum. 1st century BC e. Louis le Grand / Wikipedia Commons

Finally, in the fall of 2007, another alleged bust of Julius Caesar was raised from the bottom of the Rhone River near the French city of Arles.

Bust of Julius Caesar from Arles. Approximately 46 BC. e. IRPA / Musée Arles Antique / Wikipedia Commons

You can also see a good selection of sculptural portraits of Caesar here.

It is noticeable that even within the same type, the portraits are not very similar to each other, and if you compare one type with another, it is not at all clear how they can be the same person. At the same time, ancient Roman portrait sculpture was very different high level realism and consistently achieved portrait resemblance. To be convinced of this, just look at the numerous portraits of later emperors - Augustus, for example, or Marcus Aurelius. They cannot be confused with each other or with anyone else.

What's the matter? The fact is that almost all antiques that have come down to us sculptural portraits are not signed and their attribution is a highly speculative matter. Signed portrait images were found only on coins, and Caesar was the first Roman whose image appeared on coins during his lifetime (this happened in 44 BC, and already on March 15 of this year, on the ever-memorable Ides of March, he was killed ). The Caesar Denarius, minted by the mint official Marcus Mettius, became the model for all later coins of imperial times.

Obverse of the denomination of Mar-ka Met-tius with the image of Julius Caesar. 44 BC e. Museum of Fine Arts / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

The 55-year-old Caesar was depicted on the denarius with the realism characteristic of the late Republican era: very long neck with folds, a protruding Adam's apple, a wrinkled forehead, a thin face, in some versions - wrinkles in the corners of the eyes, a wreath, which, according to rumors, Caesar used to camouflage his baldness. But still, a coin is a special genre, and the attribution of a sculptural bust on the basis of a stylized numismatic picture is an unreliable matter. Of course, the archaeologists from Arles wanted to know as much as possible about the Roman bust of outstanding quality - which is undoubtedly a rare find. more people, and this should also help finance the work. And for such a purpose, the “bust of Julius Caesar” is more suitable than the “bust of an unknown Roman.” The same caution must be applied to all other sculptural images of Julius Caesar.

In how the public imagines a character, reputation is often more important than credibility. If we search on Google images for Emperor Vitellius, we will first of all be shown a bust from the Louvre depicting an obese, arrogant person with a triple chin. This correlates well with the image of the emperor, who, according to Suetonius, “was most distinguished by gluttony and cruelty.” But the surviving coins show a completely different face - a man also not thin, but certainly not with a snub nose.

Myth 3. He could do several things at once.

Have you ever heard your mother or grandmother say, “Don’t read while you eat, you’re not Gaius (or Caius) Julius Caesar”? This warning is based on the idea that Caesar could multitask and that this kind of multitasking was his unique property, inaccessible to most people.

Firstly, this meme is most common in Russia. This is not the case in Western European cultures. stable expression, although the fact itself is known and sometimes mentioned. However, finding it in sources is not so easy. Suetonius says nothing about this in his biography of Caesar. Plutarch, with reference to a certain Oppius, notes that Caesar “during the campaign, he also practiced sitting on a horse and dictating letters, simultaneously occupying two or even... larger number scribes." This remark is inserted between a mention of his dashing physical dexterity (“He knew how to put his hands back and put them behind his back, to launch his horse at full speed” - if you think that this is not so difficult, I remind you that ancient horsemen did not use stirrups) and a story about the invention of SMS (“They say that Caesar was the first to come up with the idea of conversing with friends about urgent matters through letters, when the size of the city and exceptional busyness did not allow meeting in person”).

Julius Caesar dictates his sayings. Painting by Pelagio Palagi. 19th century Palazzo del Quirinale/Bridgeman Images

Pliny the Elder speaks in more detail about this feature in his monumental work Natural History. He finds the liveliness of mind that distinguished Caesar unprecedented: “They report that he could write or read and at the same time dictate and listen. He could dictate four letters to his secretaries at a time, and on the most important issues; and if he was not busy with anything else, then seven letters.” Finally, Suetonius, in his biography of Augustus, notes that Julius Caesar “read letters and papers or wrote answers to them” during the circus games, for which he was criticized, and Augustus made efforts not to repeat this PR mistake of his adoptive father.

We see that we are not talking about real parallel processing, but (as happens with computers) about quickly switching from one task to another, about competent distribution of attention and prioritization. The life of a public person in antiquity posed tasks to his memory and attention that were incomparable with those that had to be solved modern people: for example, any speech, even one that lasted many hours, had to be learned by heart (there were opportunities for improvisation, of course, but in any case the general outline had to be kept in mind). Nevertheless, even against this background, Caesar’s abilities made an indelible impression on his contemporaries.

Napoleon Bonaparte, whose desire to imitate and surpass Caesar is well documented, was also famous for his ability to dictate up to seven letters at once and, according to the memoirs of one of his secretaries, Baron Claude François de Meneval, attributed this superpower to his virtuoso mastery of the technique, which in modern managerial jargon is called compartmentalization . “When I want to take my mind off something,” Napoleon said, according to Meneval, “I close the box in which it is stored and open another. The two things never mix and never bother or tire me. When I want to sleep, I close all the drawers." This system of spatial visualization of topics or tasks also dates back to classical antiquity.

Bonus track. Where was Julius Caesar killed?

Death of Julius Caesar. Painting by Jean Leon Gerome. 1859-1867 Walters Art Museum

Caesar was killed on his way to a Senate meeting. This fact, combined with the authority of Shakespeare (who places the assassination scene somewhere near the Capitol - that is, perhaps in the Forum, above western part which dominates Capitol Hill), gives many the erroneous impression that he was killed directly in the Senate building. The Senate building still stands on the Forum and is even called the Julian Curia. But during the time of Caesar he was not there: the old curia burned down during the unrest that preceded his reign, he ordered a new one to be built, but did not have time to see it (it was completed under Augustus; the building that has survived to this day is even later, from the time of Emperor Diocletian) .

Bye permanent place there were no meetings, senators gathered wherever they could (this practice has always existed and did not stop after the construction of the curia). On this occasion the place of the meeting was the portico of the newly erected Theater of Pompey; there the conspirators attacked Caesar. Today this point is located in a square called Largo di Torre Argentina. In the 1920s, the ruins of four very old temples from the Republican era were discovered there. Under Augustus, the site of Caesar's murder was walled up as if it were cursed, and a public latrine was built nearby, the remains of which can still be seen today.

Sources

Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. Divine Julius.
Caius Pliny Sec. Natural history.
Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Alexander and Caesar.
Balsdon J.P.V.D. Julius Caesar and Rome.
Goldsworthy A. Caesar: Life of a Colossus.
New Haven; London, 2008.
A Companion to Julius Caesar.

CAESAR (Caesar) Gaius Julius (100 or 102 - 44 BC), Roman dictator in 49, 48-46, 45, from 44 - for life. Commander. Started political activity as a supporter of the republican group, holding the positions of military tribune in 73, aedile in 65, praetor in 62. Seeking a consulate, in 60 he entered into an alliance with C. Pompey and Crassus (1st triumvirate). Consul in 59, then governor of Gaul; in 58-51 he subjugated all of Trans-Alpine Gaul to Rome. At 49, relying on the army, he began the struggle for autocracy. Having defeated Pompey and his supporters in 49-45 (Crassus died in 53), he found himself at the head of the state. Having concentrated in his hands a number of the most important republican positions (dictator, consul, etc.), he actually became a monarch. Killed as a result of a Republican conspiracy. Author of "Notes on the Gallic War" and "Notes on the Civil Wars"; carried out a calendar reform (Julian calendar).

CAESAR Gaius Julius (Gaius Julius Caesar), (July 13, 100 - March 15, 44 BC), Roman politician and commander. The last years of the Roman Republic are associated with the reign of Caesar, who established a regime of sole power. The name of Caesar was turned into the title of the Roman emperors; Subsequently, the Russian words “tsar”, “Caesar”, and the German “Kaiser” came from it.

Youth

He came from a noble patrician family: his father served as praetor and then proconsul of Asia, his mother belonged to the noble plebeian family of the Aurelians. Young Caesar's family connections determined his position in political world: His father's sister, Julia, was married to Gaius Marius, the de facto sole ruler of Rome, and Caesar's first wife, Cornelia, was the daughter of Cinna, Marius's successor. In 84, young Caesar was elected priest of Jupiter. The establishment of the dictatorship of Sulla in 82 and the persecution of Marius's supporters affected Caesar's position: he was removed from the post of priest and a divorce from Cornelia was demanded. Caesar refused, which resulted in the confiscation of his wife's property and the deprivation of his father's inheritance. Sulla, however, pardoned the young man, although he was suspicious of him, believing that “there are many Maries in the boy.”

Beginning of military and government activities

Having left Rome for M. Asia, Caesar was on military service, lived in Bithynia, Cilicia, participated in the capture of Mytilene. He returned to Rome after the death of Sulla, spoke at trials. For the sake of improving his oratory, he went to Fr. Rhodes to the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon. Returning from Rhodes, he was captured by pirates, paid a ransom, but then took brutal revenge by capturing sea robbers and putting them to death. In Rome, Caesar received the positions of priest-pontiff and military tribune, and from 68 - quaestor, married Pompeia, a relative of Gnaeus Pompey - his future ally and then enemy. Having taken the position of aedile in 66, he was engaged in the improvement of the city, organizing magnificent festivals and grain distributions; all this contributed to his popularity. Having become a senator, he participates in political intrigues in order to support Pompey, who was busy at that time with the war in the East and returned in triumph in 61.

First triumvirate

In 60, on the eve of the consular elections, a secret political alliance was concluded - a triumvirate - between Pompey, Caesar and the winner of Spartacus, Crassus. Caesar was elected consul for the year 59 jointly with Bibulus. Having passed the agrarian laws, Caesar acquired large number followers who received land. Strengthening the triumvirate, he married his daughter to Pompey.

Gallic War

Having become proconsul of Gaul at the end of his consular powers, Caesar conquered new territories for Rome here. In the Gallic war, Caesar's exceptional diplomatic and strategic skill and his ability to exploit contradictions among the Gallic leaders were revealed. Having defeated the Germans in a fierce battle on the territory of modern Alsace, Caesar not only repelled their invasion, but then himself, for the first time in Roman history, undertook a campaign across the Rhine, crossing his troops across a specially built bridge. Caesar also made a campaign to Britain, where he won several victories and crossed the Thames; however, realizing the fragility of his position, he soon left the island.

In 56, during a meeting of the triumvirs in Luca with Caesar, who had arrived for this purpose from Gaul, a new agreement was concluded on mutual political support. In 54, Caesar urgently returned to Gaul in connection with the uprising that had begun there. Despite desperate resistance and superior numbers, the Gauls were again conquered, many cities were captured and destroyed; by 50 Caesar had restored the territories subject to Rome.

Caesar the commander

As a commander, Caesar was distinguished by decisiveness and at the same time caution. He was hardy, and on a campaign he always walked ahead of the army - with his head uncovered in the heat, in the cold, and in the rain. Caesar knew how to set up his soldiers with a short and well-constructed speech, he personally knew his centurions and the best soldiers and enjoyed extraordinary popularity and authority among them.

Civil war

After the death of Crassus in 53, the triumvirate disintegrated. Pompey, in his rivalry with Caesar, led the supporters of traditional Senate republican rule. The Senate, fearing Caesar, refused to extend his powers in Gaul. Realizing his popularity among the troops and in Rome itself, Caesar decides to seize power by force. On January 12, 49, he gathered the soldiers of the 13th Legion, gave a speech to them and made the famous crossing of the river. Rubicon, thus crossing the border of Italy (legend attributes to him the words “the die is cast”, uttered before the crossing and marking the beginning of the civil war).

In the very first days, Caesar occupied several cities without encountering resistance. Panic began in Rome. Confused Pompey, the consuls and the Senate left the capital. Having entered Rome, Caesar convened the rest of the Senate and offered cooperation in joint government. Caesar quickly and successfully carried out a campaign against Pompey in the territory of his province - Spain. Returning to Rome, Caesar was proclaimed dictator. Pompey, teaming up with Metellus Scipio, hastily gathered a huge army, but Caesar inflicted a crushing defeat on him in famous battle at Pharsalus; Pompey himself fled to the Asian provinces and was killed in Egypt. Pursuing Pompey, Caesar went to Egypt, to Alexandria, where he was presented with the head of his murdered rival. Caesar refused the terrible gift, and, according to biographers, mourned his death.

While in Egypt, Caesar intervened in political intrigues on the side of Queen Cleopatra; Alexandria was subdued. Meanwhile, the Pompeians, of whom Cato and Scipio took the leading roles, were gathering new forces based in North Africa. After a campaign in Syria and Cilicia (it was from here that he wrote in his report “he came, he saw, he conquered”) he returned to Rome and then defeated the supporters of Pompey at the battle of Thapsus (46) in North Africa. Cities North Africa expressed their submission, Numidia was annexed to the Roman possessions, turned into the province of New Africa.

Caesar the Dictator

Upon returning to Rome, Caesar celebrates a magnificent triumph, arranges grandiose shows, games and treats for the people, and rewards the soldiers. He is proclaimed dictator for a 10-year term, and soon receives the titles of “emperor” and “father of the fatherland.” Caesar carries out laws on Roman citizenship, on government in cities, on the reduction of grain distributions in Rome, as well as a law against luxury. He reforms the calendar, which bears his name.

After the last victory over the Pompeians at Munda (in Spain, 45), Caesar began to be given immoderate honors. His statues were erected in temples and among images of kings. He wore red royal boots, red royal vestments, had the right to sit on a gilded chair, and had a large honorary guard. The month of July was named after him, and a list of his honors was written in gold letters on silver columns. Caesar autocratically appointed and removed officials from power.

Conspiracy and assassination of Caesar

Discontent was brewing in society, especially in republican circles, and there were rumors about Caesar's desire for royal power. His relationship with Cleopatra, who lived in Rome at that time, also made an unfavorable impression. A plot arose to assassinate the dictator. Among the conspirators were his closest associates Cassius and the young Marcus Junius Brutus, who, it was claimed, was even the illegitimate son of Caesar. March 15, 44 BC e. - on the Ides of March - at a meeting of the Senate, the conspirators, in front of the frightened senators, attacked Caesar with daggers. According to legend, seeing young Brutus among the murderers, Caesar exclaimed: “And you, my child” (or: “And you, Brutus”), stopped resisting and fell at the foot of the statue of his enemy Pompey.

Caesar went down in history as the largest Roman writer - his “Notes on the Gallic War” and “Notes on civil war" are rightfully considered an example of Latin prose.