Countries that took part in the First World War.

ENTENTE (French - Entente, literally - agreement), a military-political alliance of states in 1904-22. International contradictions in connection with the struggle for the redivision of the world led at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries to the formation in Europe of two military-political groups opposing each other. In 1882, after Italy joined the Austro-German Treaty of 1879, the Triple Alliance was formed. In contrast to it, the Russian-French alliance emerged, formalized by the agreement of 1891 and the military convention of 1892. Of the major European powers, only Great Britain remained outside the military blocs until the beginning of the 20th century, adhering to the traditional course of “splendid isolation” and counting on playing on the contradictions between rival factions to achieve its goals while retaining the role of an international arbiter. However, the growing antagonism with Germany forced the British government to change its position and seek rapprochement with France and Russia.

The first step towards the creation of the Entente was the signing of the Anglo-French agreement of 1904, called the Entente cordiale. With the conclusion of the Russian-English agreement in 1907, the process of forming a union of three states - the Triple Entente - was generally completed. The resulting alliance was also abbreviated as the Entente.

Unlike the Triple Alliance, whose participants from the very beginning were bound by mutual military obligations, in the Entente only Russia and France had such obligations. The British government, although it maintained contacts with the General Staff and the French naval command, refused to sign military conventions with its allies in the bloc. Disagreements and friction repeatedly arose between the Entente members. They manifested themselves even during periods of acute international crises, in particular the Bosnian crisis of 1908-09 and the Balkan wars of 1912-13.

Germany tried to exploit the contradictions within the Entente, trying to tear Russia away from France and Great Britain. However, all her efforts in this direction ended in failure (see Bjork Treaty of 1905, Potsdam Agreement of 1911). In turn, the Entente countries took successful steps to separate Italy from Germany and Austria-Hungary. Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance until the outbreak of the First World War of 1914-18, its ties with the Entente countries strengthened. In May 1915, she sided with the Entente and declared war on Austria-Hungary. At the same time, she broke off diplomatic relations with Germany (she declared war on August 28, 1916).

In 1914-18, along with Italy, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia joined the Entente , Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador and Japan. The Entente turned into a military-political alliance on a global scale, in which the leading role was played by major powers - Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, the USA and Japan.

With the outbreak of World War I, cooperation between the participants of the Triple Entente became closer. In September 1914, Great Britain, France and Russia signed a declaration in London on the non-conclusion of a separate peace with Germany and its allies, which replaced the allied military treaty. Political and military conferences of the Entente began to be held, its political and military bodies were formed - the Supreme Council and the Inter-Union Military Committee, whose task was to coordinate the actions of the Entente participants.

Like Germany and its allies, who developed a program for redividing the world, the leading powers of the Entente, at the beginning of the war, entered into secret negotiations at which plans to seize foreign lands were discussed. The agreements reached were enshrined in the Anglo-Franco-Russian agreement of 1915 (on the transfer of Constantinople and the Black Sea straits to Russia), the London Treaty of 1915 (on the transfer to Italy of territories that belonged to Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania), the Sykes-Picot agreement of 1916 (about the division of Turkey's Asian possessions between Great Britain, France and Russia). Plans to seize German colonial possessions were hatched by Japan, the USA and Portugal.

By mid-1917, the Entente countries managed to undermine the military power of the group opposing them. The actions of the Russian army played an important role in this. In November 1917, the socialist revolution was victorious in Russia; in December 1917, Russia actually left the war. The Soviet government's proposal to conclude a democratic peace without annexations and indemnities was rejected by the warring countries. In 1918, the Entente powers began a military intervention in Soviet Russia under the slogan of forcing it to fulfill allied obligations (in reality, counter-revolutionary and colonial goals were pursued). The activities of the Entente, along with anti-German activity, also acquired an anti-Soviet orientation.

With the surrender of Germany in November 1918, the Entente's main military goal was achieved. In 1919, in the process of preparing peace treaties with Germany and its allies, contradictions within the Entente sharply worsened, and its collapse began. In 1922, after the final failure of plans for military defeat Soviet Russia, The Entente as a military-political alliance virtually ceased to exist. Cooperation between its former participants was subsequently carried out along the lines of maintaining the Versailles-Washington system, created by them after the 1st World War to ensure their world leadership.

During World War II, the geopolitical structure of the Triple Entente was revived and became the basis for the formation of the anti-Hitler coalition.

Lit.: Schmitt V.E. Triple entente and triple alliance. N. Y., 1934; Tarle E.V. Europe in the era of imperialism. 1871-1919 // Tarle E.V. Op. M., 1958. T. 5; Taylor A. J. II. The struggle for dominance in Europe. 1848-1918. M., 1958; History of the First World War. 1914-1918: In 2 vols. M., 1975; Manfred A. 3. Formation of the French-Russian Union. M., 1975; Girault R. Diplomatie europeenne et imperialisme (1871-1914). R., 1997.

  • 1893 - conclusion of a defensive alliance between Russia and France.
  • 1904 - Anglo-French agreement signed.
  • 1907 - signing of the Russian-English agreement.

    • The full composition of the anti-German coalition

    A country Date of entry into the war Notes
    Serbia July 28th After the war it became the basis of Yugoslavia.
    Russia August 1 Concluded a separate peace with Germany on March 3, 1918.
    France August 3rd
    Belgium August 4 Being neutral, she refused to let German troops through, which led to her entry into the war on the side of the Entente.
    Great Britain August 4
    Montenegro 5th of August After the war it became part of Yugoslavia.
    Japan August 23
    Egypt December 18
    Italy May, 23rd As a member of the Triple Alliance, she first refused to support Germany and then went over to the side of its opponents.
    Portugal 9th of March
    Hijaz May 30 Part of the Ottoman Empire with an Arab population that declared independence during the war.
    Romania August 27 It concluded a separate peace on May 7, 1918, but on November 10 of the same year it entered the war again.
    USA April 6 Contrary to popular belief, they were never part of the Entente, being only its ally.
    Panama April 7
    Cuba April 7
    Greece June 29
    Siam July 22
    Liberia August 4
    China August 14 China officially entered the World War on the side of the Entente, but participated in it only formally; Chinese in combat armed forces did not take part.
    Brazil October 26
    Guatemala April 30
    Nicaragua May 8
    Costa Rica May, 23rd
    Haiti July, 12
    Honduras July 19
    Bolivia
    Dominican Republic
    Peru
    Uruguay
    Ecuador
    San Marino

    Some states did not declare war on the Central Powers, limiting themselves to breaking diplomatic relations.

    After the victory over Germany in 1919, the Supreme Council of the Entente practically performed the functions of a “world government”, organizing the post-war order, but the failure of the Entente’s policy towards Russia and Turkey revealed the limit to its power, undermined by internal contradictions between the victorious powers. In this political capacity of "world government", the Entente ceased to exist after the formation of the League of Nations.

    Entente intervention in Russia

    Active material and economic assistance to the White movement continued until the conclusion of the Treaty of Versailles, which formalized Germany's defeat in the war. After which the help of the Western allies White movement gradually stops.

    In Soviet historical science, the Entente intervention in Russia was viewed as an invasion directed against Russian state(“Soviet Russia”, identified with Russia in general).

    Opinions

    Emperor Wilhelm in his memoirs states that in fact the Entente bloc took shape back in 1897, after the signing of a tripartite agreement between England, America and France, known as the “Gentleman’s Agreement”.

    In the book "The problem of Japan" anonymous author, published in 1918 in The Hague, allegedly written by an ex-diplomat from the Far East, contains excerpts from the book of Roland Asher, a history professor at the University of Washington in St. Louis. Usher, just like his former colleague, professor at Columbia University in New York John Bassett Moore, was often engaged by the State Department in Washington as an adviser on issues foreign policy, for he was a great expert in international issues, which also concerned the United States, of which there are not many in America. Thanks to a book published in 1913 by Roland Usher, a professor of history at the University of Washington, the contents of a prisoner became known for the first time in the spring of 1897. "Agreement" or "Treat"(agreement or treaty) of a secret nature between England, America and France. This agreement established that if Germany, or Austria, or both together started a war in the interests of “pan-Germanism,” the United States would immediately side with England and France and provide all its funds to assist these powers. Professor Asher further cites all the reasons, including those of a colonial nature, that forced the United States to take part in the war against Germany, the imminence of which he predicted back in 1913. - Anonymous author "The problem of Japan" compiled a special table of points of the agreement concluded in 1897 between England, France and America, dividing them into separate headings, and thus depicting in a visual form the extent of mutual obligations. This chapter of his book is read with extreme interest and gives a good idea of ​​the events that preceded the world war, and of the preparations for it of the Entente countries, which, not yet acting under the name "Entente cordiale", already then united against Germany. The ex-diplomat notes: here we have an agreement concluded, according to Professor Usher, back in 1897 - an agreement that provides for all stages of the participation of England, France and America in future events, including the conquest of the Spanish colonies and control over Mexico and Central America, and the use of China, and the annexation of coal plants. However, Professor Usher wants to convince us that these events were only necessary to save the world from “Pan-Germanism.” It is unnecessary to remind Professor Asher, the ex-diplomat continues, that even if we were to admit the existence of the specter of “pan-Germanism,” then in 1897, of course, no one had heard of it, because by that time Germany had not yet put forward its large naval program, which was made public only in 1898. Thus, if England, France, and the United States really cherished those general plans which Professor Usher ascribes to them, and if they entered into an alliance for the implementation of these plans, it will hardly be possible to explain both the origin of these plans and their execution on such a weak pretext like, like the successes of “pan-Germanism”. So says the ex-diplomat. This is truly amazing. The Gauls and Anglo-Saxons, with the goal of destroying Germany and Austria, and eliminating their competition in the world market in an atmosphere of complete peace, without the slightest remorse, conclude a real division agreement directed against Spain, Germany, etc., developed to the smallest detail. This treaty was concluded by the united Gallo-Anglo-Saxons 17 years before the outbreak of the World War, and its objectives were systematically developed during this period. Now we can understand the ease with which King Edward VII could carry out his policy of encirclement; The main actors had already sung and were ready for a long time. When he christened this union "Entente cordiale", this was unpleasant news for the world, especially for the Germans; for the other side, this was only an official recognition of a de facto fact that had long been known.

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    • / O. V. Serova // Ankylosis - Bank. - M. : Great Russian Encyclopedia, 2005. - P. 23. - (Big Russian Encyclopedia: [in 35 volumes] / chief ed. Yu. S. Osipov; 2004-, vol. 2). - ISBN 5-85270-330-3.
    • Shambarov V.
    • Gusterin P.

    Excerpt characterizing the Entente

    – Your Excellency, there are political ones: Meshkov, Vereshchagin.
    - Vereshchagin! Is he not hanged yet? - shouted Rastopchin. - Bring him to me.

    By nine o'clock in the morning, when the troops had already moved through Moscow, no one else came to ask the count's orders. Everyone who could go did so of their own accord; those who remained decided with themselves what they had to do.
    The count ordered the horses to be brought in to go to Sokolniki, and, frowning, yellow and silent, with folded hands, he sat in his office.
    In calm, not stormy times, it seems to every administrator that it is only through his efforts that the entire population under his control moves, and in this consciousness of his necessity, every administrator feels the main reward for his labors and efforts. It is clear that as long as the historical sea is calm, the ruler-administrator, with his fragile boat resting his pole against the ship of the people and himself moving, must seem to him that through his efforts the ship he is resting against is moving. But as soon as a storm arises, the sea becomes agitated and the ship itself moves, then delusion is impossible. The ship moves with its enormous, independent speed, the pole does not reach the moving ship, and the ruler suddenly goes from the position of a ruler, a source of strength, into an insignificant, useless and weak person.
    Rastopchin felt this, and it irritated him. The police chief, who was stopped by the crowd, together with the adjutant, who came to report that the horses were ready, entered the count. Both were pale, and the police chief, reporting the execution of his assignment, said that in the count’s courtyard there was a huge crowd of people who wanted to see him.
    Rastopchin, without answering a word, stood up and quickly walked into his luxurious, bright living room, walked up to the balcony door, grabbed the handle, left it and moved to the window, from which the whole crowd could be seen more clearly. A tall fellow stood in the front rows and with a stern face, waving his hand, said something. The bloody blacksmith stood next to him with a gloomy look. The hum of voices could be heard through the closed windows.
    - Is the crew ready? - said Rastopchin, moving away from the window.
    “Ready, your Excellency,” said the adjutant.
    Rastopchin again approached the balcony door.
    - What do they want? – he asked the police chief.
    - Your Excellency, they say that they were going to go against the French on your orders, they shouted something about treason. But a violent crowd, your Excellency. I left by force. Your Excellency, I dare to suggest...
    “If you please, go, I know what to do without you,” Rostopchin shouted angrily. He stood at the balcony door, looking out at the crowd. “This is what they did to Russia! This is what they did to me!” - thought Rostopchin, feeling an uncontrollable anger rising in his soul against someone who could be attributed to the cause of everything that happened. As often happens with hot-tempered people, anger was already possessing him, but he was looking for another subject for it. “La voila la populace, la lie du peuple,” he thought, looking at the crowd, “la plebe qu"ils ont soulevee par leur sottise. Il leur faut une victime, [“Here he is, people, these scum of the population, the plebeians, whom they raised with their stupidity! They need a victim."] - it came to his mind, looking at the tall fellow waving his hand. And for the same reason it came to his mind that he himself needed this victim, this object for his anger.
    - Is the crew ready? – he asked another time.
    - Ready, Your Excellency. What do you order about Vereshchagin? “He’s waiting at the porch,” answered the adjutant.
    - A! - Rostopchin cried out, as if struck by some unexpected memory.
    And, quickly opening the door, he stepped out onto the balcony with decisive steps. The conversation suddenly stopped, hats and caps were taken off, and all eyes rose to the count who had come out.
    - Hello guys! - the count said quickly and loudly. - Thank you for coming. I’ll come out to you now, but first of all we need to deal with the villain. We need to punish the villain who killed Moscow. Wait for me! “And the count just as quickly returned to his chambers, slamming the door firmly.
    A murmur of pleasure ran through the crowd. “That means he will control all the villains! And you say French... he’ll give you the whole distance!” - people said, as if reproaching each other for their lack of faith.
    A few minutes later an officer hurriedly came out of the front doors, ordered something, and the dragoons stood up. The crowd from the balcony eagerly moved towards the porch. Walking out onto the porch with angry, quick steps, Rostopchin hurriedly looked around him, as if looking for someone.
    - Where is he? - said the count, and at the same minute as he said this, he saw from around the corner of the house two dragoons coming out between young man with a long thin neck, with a half-shaved and overgrown head. This young man was dressed in what had once been a dandyish, blue cloth-covered, shabby fox sheepskin coat and dirty prisoner's harem trousers, stuffed into uncleaned, worn-out thin boots. Shackles hung heavily on his thin, weak legs, making it difficult for the young man to walk indecisively.
    - A! - said Rastopchin, hastily turning his gaze away from the young man in the fox sheepskin coat and pointing to the bottom step of the porch. - Put it here! - The young man, clanking his shackles, stepped heavily onto the indicated step, holding the collar of his sheepskin coat with his finger, turned it twice long neck and, sighing, folded his thin, non-working hands in front of his stomach with a submissive gesture.
    Silence continued for several seconds while the young man positioned himself on the step. Only in the back rows of people squeezing into one place were groans, groans, tremors and the tramp of moving feet heard.
    Rastopchin, waiting for him to stop at the indicated place, frowned and rubbed his face with his hand.
    - Guys! - said Rastopchin in a metallic ringing voice, - this man, Vereshchagin, is the same scoundrel from whom Moscow perished.
    A young man in a fox sheepskin coat stood in a submissive pose, clasping his hands together in front of his stomach and bending slightly. Emaciated, with a hopeless expression, disfigured by a shaved head young face it was lowered down. At the first words of the count, he slowly raised his head and looked down at the count, as if wanting to tell him something or at least meet his gaze. But Rastopchin did not look at him. On the young man’s long thin neck, like a rope, the vein behind the ear became tense and turned blue, and suddenly his face turned red.
    All eyes were fixed on him. He looked at the crowd, and, as if encouraged by the expression that he read on the faces of the people, he smiled sadly and timidly and, again lowering his head, adjusted his feet on the step.
    “He betrayed his tsar and his fatherland, he handed himself over to Bonaparte, he alone of all Russians disgraced the name of the Russian, and Moscow is perishing from him,” said Rastopchin in an even, sharp voice; but suddenly he quickly looked down at Vereshchagin, who continued to stand in the same submissive pose. As if this look had exploded him, he, raising his hand, almost shouted, turning to the people: “Deal with him with your judgment!” I'm giving it to you!
    The people were silent and only pressed each other closer and closer. Holding each other, breathing in this infected stuffiness, not having the strength to move and waiting for something unknown, incomprehensible and terrible became unbearable. The people standing in the front rows, who saw and heard everything that was happening in front of them, all with fearfully wide-open eyes and open mouths, straining all their strength, held back the pressure of those behind them on their backs.
    - Beat him!.. Let the traitor die and not disgrace the name of the Russian! - Rastopchin shouted. - Ruby! I order! - Hearing not words, but the angry sounds of Rastopchin’s voice, the crowd groaned and moved forward, but stopped again.
    “Count!..” said Vereshchagin’s timid and at the same time theatrical voice amidst the momentary silence that ensued again. “Count, one god is above us...” said Vereshchagin, raising his head, and again the thick vein on his thin neck filled with blood, and the color quickly appeared and ran away from his face. He didn't finish what he wanted to say.
    - Chop him! I order!.. - shouted Rastopchin, suddenly turning pale just like Vereshchagin.
    - Sabers out! - the officer shouted to the dragoons, drawing his saber himself.
    Another even stronger wave swept through the people, and, reaching the front rows, this wave moved the front rows, staggering, and brought them to the very steps of the porch. A tall fellow, with a petrified expression on his face and a stopped raised hand, stood next to Vereshchagin.
    - Ruby! - Almost an officer whispered to the dragoons, and one of the soldiers suddenly, with a face distorted with anger, hit Vereshchagin on the head with a blunt broadsword.
    "A!" - Vereshchagin cried out briefly and in surprise, looking around in fear and as if not understanding why this was done to him. The same groan of surprise and horror ran through the crowd.
    "Oh my God!" – someone’s sad exclamation was heard.
    But following the exclamation of surprise that escaped Vereshchagin, he cried out pitifully in pain, and this cry destroyed him. That barrier of human feeling, stretched to the highest degree, which still held the crowd, broke through instantly. The crime had been started, it was necessary to complete it. The pitiful groan of reproach was drowned out by the menacing and angry roar of the crowd. Like the last seventh wave breaking ships, this last unstoppable wave rose from the rear ranks, reached the front ones, knocked them down and swallowed everything. The dragoon who struck wanted to repeat his blow. Vereshchagin, with a cry of horror, shielding himself with his hands, rushed towards the people. The tall fellow he bumped into grabbed Vereshchagin’s thin neck with his hands and, with a wild cry, he and he fell under the feet of the crowd of roaring people.
    Some beat and tore Vereshchagin, others were tall and small. And the cries of the crushed people and those who tried to save the tall fellow only aroused the rage of the crowd. For a long time the dragoons could not free the bloodied, beaten half to death factory worker. And for a long time, despite all the feverish haste with which the crowd tried to complete the work once begun, those people who beat, strangled and tore Vereshchagin could not kill him; but the crowd pressed them from all sides, with them in the middle, like one mass, swaying from side to side and did not give them the opportunity to either finish him off or throw him.
    “Beat with an ax, or what?.. crushed... Traitor, sold Christ!.. alive... living... the deeds of a thief are torment. Constipation!.. Is Ali alive?”
    Only when the victim had stopped struggling and her screams were replaced by a uniform, drawn-out wheezing, did the crowd begin to hastily move around the lying, bloody corpse. Each one came up, looked at what had been done, and with horror, reproach and surprise, pressed back.
    “Oh my God, the people are like beasts, where can a living person be!” - was heard in the crowd. “And the guy is young... he must be from the merchants, then the people!.. they say, he’s not the one... how could he not be the one... Oh my God... They beat another, they say, he’s barely alive... Eh, people... Who is not afraid of sin...” they were saying now the same people, with a painfully pitiful expression, looking at the dead body with a blue face, smeared with blood and dust and with a long thin neck severed.
    The diligent police officer, finding it indecent the presence of a corpse in his lordship's courtyard, ordered the dragoons to drag the body out into the street. Two dragoons took hold of the mangled legs and dragged the body. A bloody, dust-smeared, dead shaved head on a long neck, tucked under, dragged along the ground. The people huddled away from the corpse.
    While Vereshchagin fell and the crowd, with a wild roar, was embarrassed and swayed over him, Rostopchin suddenly turned pale, and instead of going to the back porch, where his horses were waiting for him, he, without knowing where or why, lowered his head, with quick steps I walked along the corridor leading to the rooms on the lower floor. The count's face was pale, and he could not stop his lower jaw from shaking, as if in a fever.
    “Your Excellency, here... where do you want?... here, please,” said his trembling, frightened voice from behind. Count Rastopchin was unable to answer anything and, obediently turning around, went where he was shown. There was a stroller on the back porch. The distant roar of the roaring crowd could be heard here too. Count Rastopchin hastily got into the carriage and ordered to go to his Vacation home in Sokolniki. Having left for Myasnitskaya and no longer hearing the screams of the crowd, the count began to repent. He now remembered with displeasure the excitement and fear that he had shown in front of his subordinates. “La populace est terrible, elle est hideuse,” he thought in French. – Ils sont sosche les loups qu"on ne peut apaiser qu"avec de la chair. [The crowd is scary, it is disgusting. They are like wolves: you can’t satisfy them with anything except meat.] “Count!” one god is above us!“ - Vereshchagin’s words suddenly came to his mind, and an unpleasant feeling of cold ran down Count Rastopchin’s back. But this feeling was instantaneous, and Count Rastopchin smiled contemptuously at himself. “J"avais d"autres devoirs,” he thought. – Il fallait apaiser le peuple. Bien d "autres victimes ont peri et perissent pour le bien publique", [I had other responsibilities. The people had to be satisfied. Many other victims died and are dying for the public good.] - and he began to think about the general responsibilities that he had in relation to his family, his (entrusted to him) capital and about himself - not as about Fyodor Vasilyevich Rostopchin (he believed that Fyodor Vasilyevich Rostopchin sacrifices himself for the bien publique [public good]), but about himself as the commander-in-chief, about representative of the authorities and the tsar’s authorized representative. “If I were only Fyodor Vasilyevich, ma ligne de conduite aurait ete tout autrement tracee, [my path would have been outlined completely differently,] but I had to preserve both the life and dignity of the commander-in-chief.”

    The Entente and the Triple Alliance are military-political associations, each of which pursued its own interests; they were opposing forces during the First World War.

    Entente - political union of three friendly states - Russia, England and France, created in 1895.

    Unlike the Triple Alliance, which was a military bloc even before the Entente, it became a full-fledged military association only when gun shots thundered over Europe in 1914. It was in this year that England, France and Russia signed an agreement under which they committed themselves not to enter into agreements with their opponents.

    The Triple Alliance emerged from Austria-Hungary in 1879. A little later, namely in 1882, they were joined by Italy, which completed the process of formation of this military-political bloc. He played a significant role in creating the situations that led to the outbreak of the First World War. In accordance with the clauses of the agreement, signed for a five-year period, the countries participating in this agreement pledged not to participate in actions directed against one of them and to provide all possible support for each other. According to their agreement, all three parties were to serve as so-called “backers.” In the event of an attack on Italy, Germany and Austria-Hungary became its reliable defense. In the case of Germany, its supporters, Italy and Austria-Hungary, who were a trump card in the event of Russian participation in military operations.

    The Triple Alliance was concluded on a secret basis and with minor reservations on the part of Italy. Since she did not want to enter into conflict relations with Great Britain, she warned her allies not to count on her support if any of them were attacked by Great Britain.

    The creation of the Triple Alliance served as an impetus for the formation of a counterweight in the form of the Entente, which included France, Russia and Great Britain. It was this confrontation that led to the outbreak of the First World War.

    The Triple Alliance lasted until 1915, since Italy already participated in military operations on the side of the Entente. This redistribution of forces was preceded by the neutrality of this country in relations between Germany and France, with which it was not beneficial for the “native” to spoil relations.

    The Triple Alliance was eventually replaced by a Quadruple Alliance, in which Italy was replaced by the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.

    The Entente and the Triple Alliance were extremely interested in the territory of the Balkan Peninsula, the Middle Peninsula and Germany wanted to capture part of France and its colonies; Austria-Hungary needed control of the Balkans; England pursued the goal of weakening Germany's position, securing a global market monopoly, and also maintaining naval power; France dreamed of returning the territories of Alsace and Lorraine taken away during the Franco-Prussian War; Russia wanted to take root in the Balkans and seize the western

    The greatest number of contradictions were associated with the Balkan Peninsula. Both the first and second blocs wanted to strengthen their positions in this region. The struggle began with peaceful diplomatic methods, accompanied by parallel preparation and strengthening of the countries' military forces. Germany and Austria-Hungary actively took up the modernization of troops. Russia was the least prepared.

    The event that served and prompted the start of hostilities was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Serbia by a student. A shot at a moving car hit not only Ferdinand, but also his wife. On July 15, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia...

    Questions 42-43.The formation of the Triple Alliance and the Entente and their military-political confrontation at the beginning of the 20th century.

    Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871 greatly changed international relations in Europe and determined the rise of Germany as one of the leading players on the international stage. After this war, Germany set out to establish its hegemony in Europe. She considered France to be the only obstacle. Ruling circles believed that France would never come to terms with the loss of Alsace and Lorraine and would always strive for revenge. Bismarck hoped to strike a second blow at France in order to reduce it to the level of a minor power. Bismarck begins to isolate France, to make sure that it has as few sympathetic countries as possible that would come to its aid. Bismarck pursues an active policy to create an Anti-French Alliance, choosing Russia and Austria-Hungary. For Russia, there was an interest in getting rid of the consequences of the Crimean War (as a result, Russia was prohibited from having a Black Sea Fleet). In the 1870s. Russia's relations with Great Britain are complicated over problems in the East. Austria-Hungary sought to gain German support in order to dominate the Balkans.

    IN 1873 is created Alliance of Three Emperors(If one of the states is attacked, the other two will help it in the war).

    Bismarck began putting pressure on France - in 1975 he provoked Franco-German alarm 1975(in France, a number of priests promoted revenge on E. and Lot. Bismarck accused the French authorities that this was their initiative, and began to prepare a war against the French). Alexander 2 specially arrived in Berlin to personally tell Wilhelm that he did not support Germany in its war with France. This was one of the first blows to S3imp. It was also undermined by contradictions between Russia and Austria-Hungary over rivalry in the Balkans. And in 1879, a customs war broke out between Russia and Germany.

    Formation of the Triple Alliance began with registration in 1879 Austro-German Confederation. This rapprochement was facilitated by the deterioration of Russian-German relations (Russia stood up for France during the war of alarm in 1875. And in 1879, after the introduction in Germany of high duties on grain imported from Russia, the latter followed up with retaliatory measures, which led to Russian- German customs war).

    On October 7, 1879, in Vienna, the German Ambassador Reis and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary Andrássy signed a secret alliance treaty. This treaty obliged each of its participants to assist the other with all military forces in the event of an attack by Russia and not to enter into separate negotiations with it. If the attack was carried out by some other party, then neutrality. However, if the attacking power was supported by Russia, then the parties must act together and with all their might. The alliance was concluded for 5 years, but was subsequently extended until the World War.

    The next stage in the creation of a military-political bloc of Central European powers was joining Austro-German Union of Italy (1882). The latter was prompted to sign the treaty by the deterioration of relations with France (in 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, which was perceived negatively in Italy).

    Despite the claims against Austria-Hungary, Italy concluded the so-called Triple Alliance in 1882. According to it, the parties pledged not to take part in any alliances or agreements directed against one of the parties to the treaty; Germany and Austria-Hungary provided Italy with military support in the event of a war with France. Italy assumed similar obligations in the event of a French attack on Germany. Austria-Hungary in this case remained neutral until Russia entered the war. The parties adhered to neutrality in the event of a war with anyone other than France, and the parties provided support to each other in the event of an attack by two or more great powers.

    Formation of the Entente began after the Franco-Russian rapprochement. In 1893, the parties signed a secret military convention.

    At the beginning of the twentieth century. Relations between France and England began to improve. England needed continental troops in case of war with Germany. France just had a major ground army and highly conflictual relations with Germany. It was impossible to count on Russia yet, because... Britain supported Japan in the Russo-Japanese War.

    France felt the need for a strong ally. Russia's position was weakened by the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. and the beginning of the revolution.

    On April 8, 1904, an agreement on basic colonial issues was signed between the governments of Britain and France, known in history as the Anglo-French Entente. It established the spheres of influence of countries in Siam (England - West Side, France - eastern). The most important was the declaration on Egypt and Morocco. In fact, the colonial rule of England in Egypt and France in Morocco was recognized.

    The 1904 treaty did not contain the terms of a military alliance, but still the Anglo-French Entente was directed against Germany.

    By 1907, an Anglo-Russian rapprochement had begun.

    Russia's turn towards Great Britain is largely due to the deterioration of the former's relations with Germany. Germany's construction of the Baghdad Railway posed a direct threat to Russia. Petersburg was concerned about the German-Turkish rapprochement. The growth of hostility was largely facilitated by the Russian-German trade agreement of 1904, imposed on Russia under pressure from Germany. Russian industry began to be unable to withstand the competition of German goods. Russia wanted to raise its international prestige through rapprochement with England, and also counted on loans from the British side.

    The British government viewed Russia as a double ally - in a future war with Germany and in the suppression of the revolutionary and national liberation movement in the East (in 1908, Russia and Britain acted together against the revolution in Persia).

    In 1907, the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed. In the presence of the Franco-Russian (1893) and Anglo-French treaties (1904), the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 completed the creation of a military-political bloc directed against the coalition of powers led by Germany.Military-political confrontation between the countries of the Entente and the Triple Alliance in the last third - XIXbeginningXX

    V. 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed long occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina(In 1908 - the Young Turk revolution in Turkey, during which the liberation movement begins Slavic peoples. Having decided to occupy B. and Hertz., A-B buys a concession from Turkey for the construction of a railway to the city of Thessaloniki - exit to the Aegean Sea. Then she officially announces annexation and Russia protests. However, weakened after Russian-Japanese. war, Russia cannot do anything and suffers a diplomatic defeat) and proposed that Bulgaria and Romania divide on three Serbia. Serbia was preparing to repel any invasion, counting on Russian support. But Russia was not ready for a war with Austria-Hungary, on whose side Germany stood, which in 1909 directly pledged to help the Habsburg Empire if Russia intervened in Austro-Serbian relations. Under pressure from Germany, Russia recognized Austria-Hungary's rule over Bosnia and Herzegovina.

    Russia tried in vain to weaken the rapprochement between Germany and Austria-Hungary, and Germany was unable to tear Russia away from the Entente.

    The strengthening of the alliance with Austria-Hungary and the relative weakening of Russia allowed Germany to increase pressure on France. 1st Moroccan crisis 1905-1906 In 1905, Germany proposed the division of Morocco. She stated that she would reclaim the port of Agadir. Wilhelm 2 goes on a trip to Palestine (Germany is the protector of Muslim peoples) - part of the population of Morocco is imbued with sympathy for Germany and demands the convening of an international conference on the Muslim issue. In 1906 in Spain in Alziserass A conference was held, the result of which was that no one supported Germany in its claims.

    Taking advantage of the French invasion of Morocco in 1911 (suppression of unrest in the city of Fess), Germany sent its warship to Agadir (" Panther jump") and declared its intention to seize part of Morocco. The conflict could lead to war. But Germany’s claims were resolutely opposed by Great Britain, which did not want the appearance of German colonies near Gibraltar. Germany then did not dare to clash with the Entente and had to be content with part of the Congo, which it ceded to it France in exchange for recognition of its power over Morocco. But since then it has become obvious that war between the European powers could break out even over the colonies, not to mention more serious mutual claims.

    Amid growing tensions, another attempt by Britain to negotiate an agreement with Germany under which each would agree not to engage in an unprovoked attack on the other failed. German leaders proposed a different formula: each side would pledge to remain neutral if the other became involved in the war. This would mean the destruction of the Entente, which Great Britain did not dare to do. In reality, mutual neutrality between Germany and Great Britain was out of the question, as economic competition became fiercer and the arms race intensified. The Anglo-German negotiations of 1912 gave hope for the settlement of only minor contradictions over spheres of influence, but created the illusion among the German ruling circles that British neutrality in the European war was not excluded.

    Further weakening Ottoman Empire, long considered the “sick man of Europe,” led to the emergence of a bloc of Balkan states directed against it ("Little Entente"). It was created on the initiative of Serbia, supported by Russia and France. In the spring of 1912, the Serbian-Bulgarian and Greek-Bulgarian treaties were signed (followed by Montenegro), in solidarity with which Montenegro acted, which was the first to begin military operations against the Ottoman Empire on October 9. The armed forces of the Balkan states quickly defeated the Turkish army ( First Balkan War 1912-1913). In October 1912, these 4 states began a war with the Turks, with Bulgaria making a major contribution. In November 1912, the Bulgarian the army reached Constantinople. In November, Türkiye turned to the great powers for mediation.

    The successes of the Balkan bloc alarmed Austria-Hungary and Germany, who feared the strengthening of Serbia, especially the accession of Albania to it. Both powers were ready to confront Serbia with force. This would cause a clash with Russia and the entire Entente, which was confirmed by Great Britain. Europe was on the brink of war. To avoid it, a meeting of the ambassadors of the six great powers was held in London. At it, the Entente patronized the Balkan states, and Germany and Austria-Hungary patronized the Ottoman Empire, but they still managed to agree that Albania would become autonomous under the supreme authority of the Sultan and Serbian troops from she will be taken out.

    After long and difficult negotiations, only May 30, 1913 signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan states peace treaty. The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territory, Albania and the Aegean Islands.

    However, conflict broke out between the victors over these territories. The Montenegrin prince besieged Scutari, not wanting to cede it to Albania. And Serbia and Greece, with the support of Romania, which demanded compensation from Bulgaria for its neutrality, sought from Bulgaria part of the territories it inherited. Russian diplomacy tried in vain to prevent a new conflict. Encouraged by Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria turned against its former allies. broke out Second Balkan War 1913. Austro - Hungary prepared to support Bulgaria with armed force. Only warnings from Germany, who considered the moment unfortunate, and Italy kept her from speaking. Bulgaria, against which the Ottoman Empire also fought, was defeated.

    Once again, the ambassadors of the great powers in London took up Balkan affairs, trying to win over the Balkan states to the side of their blocs and backing up their arguments with loans. On August 18, 1913, a peace treaty was signed between the participants in the Second Balkan War, according to which Serbia and Greece received a significant part of Macedonia, Southern Dobruja went to Romania, and part of Eastern Thrace went to the Ottoman Empire.

    The Balkan Wars led to a regrouping of forces. The Austro-German bloc strengthened its influence on the Ottoman Empire, secured by sending a German military mission there, and attracted Bulgaria to its side. And the Entente retained predominant influence in Serbia, Montenegro and Greece and attracted Romania to its side. The Balkans, the center of intertwined interests and conflicts, have become Europe's powder keg.

    Bloc, a military alliance of states - England, France and Russia, formed at the beginning of the 20th century; later (since 1917), the United States and a number of other states actually joined Armenia. The “Triple Entente” arose in opposition to another bloc - Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (the so-called “Triple Alliance”). All countries included in these blocs, especially Germany, sought a new division of the world, which led to the First World War.

    Great definition

    Incomplete definition ↓

    ENTENTE

    Under this name the agreement between England, France and Russia is known, which in 1904-07 completed the final demarcation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War of 1914-18. The demarcation itself began with the entry of capitalism into the imperialist stage of development in the second half of the last century. Germany, having embarked earlier than other powers on the path of creating imperialist blocs in order to achieve a redivision of the world in its favor, already in 1882 entered into an alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy (see. Triple Alliance), renewed in 1891, in response to the creation of a clearly aggressive German bloc, after long negotiations, it was signed in 1893 Franco-Russian treaty(cm.). Summing up the results of the first disengagement of forces in Europe for 20 years, from 1871 to 1893, Engels wrote: “The major military powers of the continent were divided into two large camps that threatened each other: Russia and France on the one hand, Germany and Austria on the other.” England remained aloof from the blocs, hoping to achieve its goals by playing on the contradictions between both unions and thereby retaining the role of arbiter. British diplomats, who welcomed the Austro-German alliance as anti-Russian, sought to direct German aggression against Russia and repeatedly tried to enter into an agreement with Germany. The interests of both powers, however, collided more and more often, and the construction of a large navy by Germany, which began in the 20th century, opened the eyes of even Germanophile-minded English leaders. Fearing being left eye to eye with Germany, England abandoned its traditional position of “brilliant isolation” and began to search for allies, settling disputes primarily with France (see. Anglo-French treaties). The Russo-Japanese War, which began in February 1904 not without the well-known provocation of Germany, which was pushing Russia to the Far East in order to free its hands in the West, and not without inciting Japan from England, weakened the Franco-Russian alliance, because it chained significant forces of tsarism to the distant to the front. France, fearing isolation, hastened to complete negotiations with England and signed an agreement on April 8, 1904 (Entente - agreement, hence the name of the bloc). The agreement dealt with the division of spheres of influence in Africa, since in the articles of the treaty that were to be published, and especially in secret clauses, France recognized England as Egypt, and England placed Morocco at the uncontrolled disposal of France. Lenin described the treaty this way, noting: “They are dividing Africa.” But, eliminating the main disagreement between England and France, the agreement opened the way for a joint struggle with Germany. “They are preparing for war with Germany,” Lenin described the real meaning of the Anglo-French agreement of 1904. Both participants A-, of which France was in an alliance with Russia, were extremely interested in bringing tsarism with its huge army into the agreement, for which it was necessary soften the Anglo-Russian contradictions that determined the hostile relations of both countries throughout the 19th century. Controversies in the Far East had weakened by this time due to the defeat of tsarism; In addition, England secured itself by an alliance with Japan (see. Anglo-Japanese Alliance). Middle Eastern contradictions between England and Russia gave way to sharper and deeper contradictions between both rivals and Germany, which was making its way into Turkey and Iran. It remained to resolve the Anglo-Russian contradictions in Central Asia- in Iran, Afghanistan, and also in Tibet. Tsarism, having suffered defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, needing loans to suppress the revolution and eliminate the consequences of an unsuccessful war, went to resolve conflicts with England, especially since, despite the conclusion Treaty of Portsmouth(see), Japan did not give up its claims to the Russian Far East. In 1907, relations between Japan and Russia deteriorated again due to the fishing convention and Northern Manchuria. Tsarist diplomacy hoped to weaken the Japanese threat by an agreement with England. The latter, trying to attract Russia to Africa, in turn, believed it was necessary to ease the pressure of Japan. In July 1907, with some assistance from England, a fishing convention and a Russian-Japanese agreement were signed recognizing Northern Manchuria as a sphere of influence of Russia, Southern Manchuria and Korea - Japan, and on 31. VIII 1907 Anglo-Russian agreement(cm.). According to this agreement, Iran was divided into 3 zones: the northern - the sphere of influence of Russia, the south-eastern - England, the middle - neutral, where both powers were obliged not to interfere with each other; Afghanistan was recognized as the sphere of influence of England, and with regard to Tibet, both sides pledged not to interfere in its internal affairs and to preserve it. territorial integrity and negotiate with him only through the Chinese government. In the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907, again, nothing was said about Germany, but the weakening of Anglo-Russian contradictions made it possible to direct all attention to the fight with Germany: Russia became a member of Austria, and the Triple Entente was created as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Lenin defined the objectives of the agreement: “They are dividing Persia, Afghanistan, Tibet (preparing for war with Germany).” A.'s education softened the contradictions between its three members, but did not eliminate them. Disagreements surfaced more than once, which Germany took advantage of in an attempt to tear Russia away from Austria, but general contradictions with Germany became increasingly acute, pushed into the background internal disagreements and ultimately led to the First World War. On the eve and during the war, 25 powers, including the United States, grouped around Africa. For three years, Russia drew off significant enemy forces, quickly coming to the aid of the allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West. But the tsarist government did not withstand all the trials of the war. Tsarism was defeated. A revolution broke out in Russia. Having come to power in November 1917, the Bolsheviks began the struggle to end the war and conclude a universal democratic peace. Russia's exit from the war did not disrupt Africa's victory over the German bloc, because Russia fully fulfilled its allied obligations, unlike England and France, who more than once broke their promises of help; Russia gave England and France the opportunity to mobilize all their resources; the struggle of the Russian army allowed the United States to expand its production power and create an army; Russia, which emerged from the war, was replaced by the United States, which officially declared war on Germany in April 1917; finally, Soviet Russia pinned down significant forces in Germany, forcing it to actually wage a war on two fronts and after Treaty of Brest-Litovsk(cm.). Through the joint efforts of the African countries, Germany was defeated. A., which began to crack with Russia’s exit from the war, actually ceased to exist after the defeat of Germany. The retention of the title of A. by the winners for some time was purely nominal. The defeat of Germany opened the way for intra-Entente contradictions that had been hidden for a while, which had a particularly strong impact in Treaty of Versailles(see), the conclusion of which was not so much the end of the struggle with Germany, but rather the struggle of the victors among themselves in order to consolidate their positions. Moreover, the peace imposed on the vanquished was extremely difficult; it was an imperialist peace, that is, a peace that took into account the imperialist interests of the great powers, and not the desire to save humanity from new upheavals. Having excluded Russia from participation in the peace conference, whose military efforts had saved Austria more than once, the victors failed to create conditions for curbing the German aggressor; on the contrary, having imposed an unjust peace on a large part of Europe, the creators of the Versailles system believed that it would not be undermined and blown up internal reasons, arising from the very essence of the system, and the presence of Soviet power in Russia, through its struggle for a real and lasting peace, disrupts the supposedly newly created system. The leading countries of A. - England and France, as well as the USA, Japan and Italy, which broke with the Triple Alliance, literally on the second day after the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution, began an armed intervention in Soviet Russia. The official motives for the long-term intervention were the desire to force Russia to fight on the side of Austria against Germany and to recognize foreign debts. But the war against Germany was already over, and the Soviet government repeatedly agreed to acknowledge the debts. Nevertheless, A. continued to launch armed campaigns against the Soviet country one after another for three years, thereby showing that it was not a matter of debts or punishing Russia for leaving the war, but of liquidation Soviet system. Suppress Soviet power A. failed. Inspired and led by the Lenin-Stalin party, the peoples of the Soviet country defended their independence and the gains of the Great October Socialist Revolution. But the miscalculations of Austria's leaders led to the revival of German imperialism. Taking advantage of the contradictions within Africa, offering its services alternately to one or the other power to fight Bolshevism, imperialist Germany achieved a number of concessions, preserving its production apparatus, preserving military personnel, weakening control over the implementation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty and appeared before the recent victors not only in the role of a new enemy, but also in the form of a threat to the very existence of the former participants of A., and with them the whole world; just 20 years after the defeat, German imperialism in its fascist variety imposed on humanity a new, incomparably bloodier war, which brought Germany a brutal defeat as a result of the combined efforts of the Anglo-Soviet-American coalition. Literature: Lenin, V.I. Works. T. XXIV. P. 389, 555-578, 604, 610. T. XXV. P. 296. T. XXVI. P. 25. - Stalin, I.V. On the political situation of the republic (Report at the Regional Meeting of Communist Organizations of the Don and the Caucasus on October 27, 1920 in Vladikavkaz). "About October revolution. Collection of articles and speeches." M. 1932. pp. 22-23. - Stalin, I. V. New Entente campaign against Russia. "Lenin and Stalin. Collection of works for the study of the history of the CPSU(b). T. II. [M.]. 1937. pp. 279-283. - Materials on the history of Franco-Russian relations for 1910-1914. Collection of secret diplomatic documents of the former imp. Russian Ministry foreign affairs M. 1922. 720 pp. - Russian-German relations 1873-1914. Secret documents. M. 1922. 268 p. Dept. Ott. from magazines "Red Archive". 1922. T. I.-Graf Benckendorffs diplomatischer Schriftwechsel. Neue stark vermehrte Auflage der diplomatischen Aktenst?cke zur Geschichte der Ententepolitik der Vorkriegsjahre. Bd. 1-3. Berlin-Leipzig. 192 8.- Mogilevich, A. A. and Airapetyan, M. E. On the path to world war 1914-1918. [L.]. 1940. 293 p.-Taube, M. La politique russe d avant-guerre et la fin de l empire des tsars (1904 - 1917)... Paris. 1928. VIII, 412 p. - Michon, G. L alliance franco-russe 1891 - 1917. Paris. 1927. VIII, 316 p.-Pribram, A. F. England and the international policy of the European great powers 1871 - 1914. Oxford. 1931. XII, 156 p. -Brandenburg. E. Von Bismarck zum Weltkriege. Die deutsche Politik in den Jahr zehnten vor dem Kriege. Drgs. auf Grund der Akten des Ausw?rtigen Amtes. Berlin 1924. X, 454 S. -Indications to the official. For documents, see also the literature for the articles: Anglo-Russian Agreement of 1907 and Anglo-French Agreement of 1904.



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