The first part presents birds.

66 (525) Helmeted Friarbird, Philemon buceroides buceroides)

On November 11, often seen on Komodo Island; on November 13, one bird was seen in Puarlolo Forest on Flores Island.

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67 (526) Indonesian Honeyeater, Lichmera limbata)

On November 7th and 8th there are many birds in the flowering bushes along the road in Botanical Garden(Bedugul, Bali).
November 12 on Kanawa Island in the Komodo Nature Reserve.

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68 (527) Golden-bellied Gerygone, Gerygone sulphurea sulphurea)

On November 12, I saw only one bird on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).

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69 (528) Black-winged Flycatcher-shrike, Hemipus hirundinaceus)

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70 (529) White-breasted Woodswallow, Artamus leucorynchus albiventer)

November 3 and 9 met in Sanur.
On November 10, several birds near the national park office on Rinca Island.

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71 Black-winged Iora (Common Iora, Aegithina tiphia scapularis)

On November 15 - 17, we met several birds on the territory of the La Joya hotel (Balangan beach, South Bali).

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72 (530) White-shouldered Thriller, Lalage sueurii)

Endemic to Indonesia (Java, Bali, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi)

On November 3 and 4, several birds in Western Bali, including at the landfill near Gplimanuk.

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73 Dwarf long-tailed grubeater (Small Minivet, Pericrocotus cinnamomeus saturatus)

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74 (531) Himalayan fire larvae (Scarlet Minivet, Pericrocotus speciosus siebersi)

Synonym: Pericrocotus flammeus siebersi.

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White-bellied Whistler (Mangrove Whistler, Pachycephala cinerea)

Synonyms: Pachycephala grisola

On November 4, on the mangrove path at the Menjangan hotel, this whistler was seen in the thickets; it responded to a song, but it was not possible to take a photo.
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75 (532) Golden Whistler, Pachycephala pectoralis fulvotincta)

Sometimes a separate species of Rusty-breasted Whistler is identified - Pachycephala fulvotincta. In this case, it is endemic to Indonesia.

November 10, a male and a female in a tree near a dry riverbed in the national park on Rinca Island.
November 11 female on Komodo Island.

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76 Long-tailed Shrike, Lanius schach bentet)

November 4 at Lake Bratan.
On November 7th and 8th there may be one bird at Bedugul Botanical Garden (Bali).

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77 Chinese Black-naped Oriole, Oriolus chinensis broderipii)

On November 7 and 8, an oriole was seen and heard at the Bedugul Botanical Garden (Bali).
On November 11, several birds were seen on Komodo Island. We heard their melodic whistle.

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78 Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus javanus)

We met from November 4 to 6 in the National Park (BBNP).
November 16, one bird in the floodplain of the river on Balangan beach (South Bali).

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79 Gray Drongo (Ashy Drongo, Dicrurus leucophaeus leucophaeus)

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80 (533) Sunda Drongo (Wallacean Drongo, Dicrurus densus bimaensis)

Synonyms: Bima Drongo.

Endemic to Indonesia.

November 11th were often encountered on Komodo Island.
November 12, one bird near the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).
November 14, one bird on Lake Ramanese (Flores).

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81 Collared Fantail (Pied Fantail, Rhipidura javanica javanica)

We met from November 4 to 6 in the National Park (BBNP). We managed to take the photo at the drinking bowl on the morning of November 4th.

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And the Black-naped Monarch, Hypothymis azurea symmixta)

IN ( Hypothymis azurea javana)

Saw one bird on November 4 near a dry riverbed in the National Park (BBNP), also seen on the mangrove path at The Menjangan Hotel.

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Asian Paradise-flycatcher, Terpsiphone paradisi floris)

Synonym: Long-tailed flycatcher.

On November 13, we met a singing male flycatcher in the Puarlolo forest on the island of Flores.
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83 (535) Flores Monarch, Symposiachrus sacerdotum)

Synonym: Monarcha sacerdotum.

Endemic to Flores Island (Indonesia).

A Endangered species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

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84 (536) Racket-tailed Treepie, Crypsirina temia)

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Slender-billed Crow Corvus enca enca)

On November 4, I saw one bird flying towards the landfill in Gilimanuk. The search for this crow was unsuccessful and no photo was taken.
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85 Large-billed Crow Corvus macrorhynchos macrorhynchos)

From November 10 to 12, pairs of crows were seen both on the islands of Rinca and Komodo, and flying over boats and small islands.

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86 (537) Gray Tit (Cinereous Tit, Parus cinereus cinereus)

From November 4 to 7, we saw pairs of tits in the National Park (BBNP), including near the hotel.
November 12, several birds on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).

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87 (538) Sooty-headed Bulbul, Pycnonotus aurigaster aurigaster)

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88 Yellow-vented Bulbul, Pycnonotus goiavier)

We met from November 4 to 7 in the National Park (BBNP).
November 15 - 17 there are many birds on the territory of the hotel "La Joya" (Balangan beach, South Bali) and in the surrounding area.

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89 Barn Swallow, or killer whale (Barn Swallow, Hirundo rustica gutturalis)

On November 5 we met at the salt fields (Pemuteran, Bali).
November 15 - 17 there are many birds over the territory of the hotel "La Joya" (Balangan beach, South Bali) and in the surrounding area.

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Russet-capped Tesia ( Tesia everetti)

On November 13th we only heard in the Puarlolo forest (Flores).
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90 (539) Striated Grassbird, Megalurus palustris palustris)

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91 (540) Zitting Cisticola, Cisticola juncidis fuscicapilla)

Synonym: Streaked Fantail Warbler.

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92 (541) Bar-winged Prinia, Prinia familiaris)

Frequently seen from 4 to 6 November in the National Park (BBNP) and on the grounds of the Menjagan Hotel.

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93 (542) Olive-backed Tailorbird, Orthotomus sepium)

Endemic to Indonesia (Java, Bali and Lombok).

Frequently seen from 4 to 6 November in the National Park (BBNP) and on the grounds of the Menjagan Hotel.
November 15 - 17, a pair of birds on the territory of the hotel "La Joya" (Balangan beach, South Bali).

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94 (543) Thick-billed Heleia, Heleia crassirostris)

Synonym: Flores White-eye.

Endemic to Indonesia.

On November 13, several birds were feeding on a fruit tree in the Puarlolo forest, Mbeliling, Flores.

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95 (544) Lemon-bellied White-eye, Zosterops chloris intermedius)

Endemic to Indonesia.

November 10, several birds in the morning on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).
On November 10-12, we met on all the islands and islets of the Komodo Nature Reserve.

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96 (545) Short-tailed Starling, Aplonis minor)

On November 7, several in the Bedugul Botanical Garden, on November 8, early in the morning, a large flock of birds on the mountain near the Green Villa guest house in Bedugul (Bali).

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97 (546) White-bellied Myna (Javan Myna, Acridotheres javanicus)

A pair of birds were seen in Gilimanuk (BBNP) on November 4th.
November 15 - 17 several birds on the territory of the hotel "La Joya" (Balangan beach, South Bali) and in the surrounding area.

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98 (547) Bali Myna, Leucopsar rothschildi)

Synonyms: Rothschild's Mynah, Bali Starling, Bali Mynah.

Status "CRITICALLY Endangered" in the IUCN Red List.

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99 Black Chat (Pied Bushchat, Saxicola caprata fruticola)

November 10, several birds near the national park office on Rinca Island, one bird there on the top of the hill.
Also found on small islands of the Komodo Nature Reserve.

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100 (548) Fulvous-chested Jungle Flycatcher, Rhinomyias olivaceus)

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101 (549) Little Pied Flycatcher, Ficedula westermanni hasselti)

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102 (550) Scarlet-headed Flowerpecker, Dicaeum trochileum trochileum)

Endemic to Java and Borneo.

We saw several birds on November 5 in the National Park (BBNP) on a fruit tree near Gilimanuk.

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103 Brown-throated Sunbird, Anthreptes malacensis convergens)

Synonym: Plain-throated Sunbird.

On the morning of November 10, we met these sunbirds on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).

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104 (551) Olive-backed Sunbird, Cinnyris jugularis ornatus)

Synonym: Yellow-bellied Sunbird.

In Bali and Flores, many of these sunbirds were seen daily, in joint groups of males and females.
Birds were also found on Rinca Island.

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105 (552) Timor Sunbird (Flame-breasted Sunbird, Cinnyris solaris solaris)

Endemic to Indonesia (Lesser Sunda Islands).

November 10, 12, 13 several birds in the morning on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).
On November 10 we met on Rinca Island, on November 11 on Komodo Island.

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106 Tree Sparrow (Eurasian Tree Sparrow, Passer montanus malaccensis)

Many birds live on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).
Birds were seen in Ruteng.
The photo was taken in Sanur on the first morning of our stay in Bali.

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107 (553) Zebra finch(Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata guttata)

On the morning of November 10, there were several birds on the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).

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110 (554) Javan finch (Javan Munia, Lonchura leucogastroides)

Endemic to Indonesia. There is a colony in Singapore.

November 9, a group of birds (adults and young) on ​​the territory of the Swastika Bungalows hotel (Sanur, South Bali). Inside one large and dense bush I found several spherical nests of this finch.

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108 (555) Moluccan finch (Black-faced Munia, Lonchura molucca propinqua)

Synonyms: Moluccan Mannikin, Moluccan Munia.

Endemic to Indonesia.

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109 Scaly-breasted Munia, Lonchura punctulata nisoria)

On November 8, there are many muniyas (young and adults) on the territory of the Swastika Bungalows hotel (Sanur, South Bali).
November 15 - 17 a flock of birds on the territory of the hotel "La Joya" (Balangan beach, South Bali).

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110 (556) Five-colored Munia, Lonchura quinticolor)

Synonyms: Chestnut-and-white Mannikin, Colored Finch, Chestnut-and-white Munia.

Endemic to the Lesser Sunda Islands (Indonesia).

November 14, several birds on the territory of the Kongreasi monastery Santa Maria Berdukacita" in the city of Ruteng (Flores).

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111 (557) White-headed Munia, Lonchura maja)

November 9, several birds on the territory of the hotel "Swastika Bungalows" (Sanur, South Bali). One bird tried to tear off the dry ends of the leaves of a large cereal.

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112 Paddyfield Pipit, Anthus rufulus albidus)

On November 9 and 12, one bird near the territory of the hotel "The Jayakarta Suites Komodo Flores" (Flores).
November 12, one bird on Kanawa Island in the Komodo Nature Reserve.

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Fauna of Indonesia It is distinguished by a high level of metrobiological diversity due to both the impressive size of the territory and its tropical meter position. Indonesia is divided into two ecological regions: western Indonesia, more influenced by Asian fauna, and eastern region, more influenced by Australasia. Also, do not forget about the metro-ecological zone. The boundary between these two regions is the Wallace meter line. This unique combination The animal world largely depends on the diversity of the ecosystem and our meter.

Biodiversity

Indonesia has the richest fauna of any country in the world. Almost all the main classes of animals living in Indonesia are diverse. At the beginning of the 21st century, 515 species of mammals, 1,531 species of birds, 122 species of butterflies, more than 600 species of reptiles and more than 270 species of amphibians were recorded here. At the same time, in particular, 39% of mammals and 36% of birds are endemic. Among the most famous endemics are the Komodo dragon, Kul's deer, babirussa, Tonk macaque.

Many animals are under threat, and the populations of some species are declining at a very rapid rate. Thus, among mammals alone, 140 species are classified as threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 15 of which are considered critically endangered. Among the latter are animals such as the orangutan, the Javan rhinoceros, and the Sumatran tiger.

Video on the topic

Formation of fauna

Sumatran orangutan

The formation of the Indonesian fauna was influenced by geographical and geological events in both Asia and Australasia. Present-day New Guinea was connected to modern-day Australia, forming a supercontinent called Gondwana. This supercontinent began to diverge about 140 million years ago and New Guinea moved closer to the equator. As a result, New Guinea animals moved to and from the Australian continent, creating many other species living in different ecosystems. These processes continued until both regions finally separated. The influence of the Asian continent was in turn the result of the transformation of the supercontinent Laurasia, which existed after the breakup of Rodinia about 1 billion years ago. Around 200 million years ago, Laurasia finally splits to form the North American continent and Eurasia. The Eurasian continent was not completely separated from the Indonesian archipelago. As a result, animals moved to the archipelago, also forming new species.

Sundaland

This region includes Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan and adjacent islands and has a fauna similar to that of Asia. During the Ice Age, the Asian continent was connected to the Indonesian archipelago. In addition, low sea levels allowed animals to migrate from the Asian mainland to Sundaland. As a result, the region is home to species such as tigers, rhinoceroses, orangutans, elephants and leopards, although some are considered endangered. The Wallace Line serves as the boundary of Sundaland in the east. Sundaland is home to 381 species of mammals, 173 of which are endemic to the region. Most of these species have recently been on the verge of extinction. Two species of orangutans: Sumatran and Bornean are listed in the Red Book. Other species such as proboscis, Sumatran and Javan rhinos are also under serious threat. There are 771 species of birds found in Sundaland, 146 of which are endemic to the region. Java and Bali have at least 20 endemic species, including the Bali starling and Javan plover. Sundaland is home to 449 reptile species in 125 genera. 249 species and 24 genera of them are endemic. Three families of reptiles are also endemic to the region. It is also home to 242 species of amphibians belonging to 41 families. 172 species of them are endemic. In the last 10 years, about 200 new fish species have been discovered in the region. About 1,000 species live in the rivers, lakes and streams of Sundaland.

Wallacea

see also

Notes

1. Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People (inaccessible link - story) . Islam Online (22 May 2003). Retrieved October 6, 2006. Archived June 22, 2003.
2. Severin, Tim. The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace. - Great Britain: Abacus Travel, 1997. - ISBN 0-349-11040-9.
3. Wildlife of Indonesia. Magic forests. - Original: Wild_Indonezia. Magical Forest. Documentary. - BBC. - 2000. - 3 minutes.
4. Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People. Islam Online (22 May 2003). Retrieved October 6, 2006. Archived October 17, 2006.
5. Paul Massicot. Animal Info – Indonesia (English) . Animal Info. Retrieved August 17, 2010. Archived August 21, 2011.
6. . Indonesia – Flora and Fauna. Encyclopedia of the Nations. Encyclopedia of the Nations. Retrieved October 12, 2006.

Indonesia is the largest island state, which includes many islands. The most famous of them are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Bali. Indonesia's tropical rainforests are rich in biodiversity and account for 10 percent of the world's tropical rainforests. There are famous and completely unique plants, striking the imagination. In terms of the richness and diversity of vegetation, none of the tropical countries in the eastern hemisphere can compare with the islands of the Indonesian archipelago.

Tropical trees - useful and decorative

More than half of the islands' total area is covered by moist evergreen tropical forests, which are called lungs of the planet. Indonesia's climate is oceanic, monsoon, with humidity 80-90 percent, average annual temperatures about plus 26 degrees Celsius. Almost all known tropical crops are found there, and there are plants whose homeland is Indonesia. In total - about 40 thousand species.

Several types of palm trees grow on the islands: sago, coconut, sugar, oil, banana. The latter are considered sacred, they develop and bear fruit very well, but banana groves require constant renewal after fruiting.

Coconuts and bananas are eaten; oil and sugar are obtained from palm trees and their fruits. Palm wood is used as building materials, and their leaves are used to make roofs for pagodas.

The most common plants are considered different kinds bamboo, some specimens of which reach 30-40 cm in diameter and 20 m in height. Bamboo, along with other wood species, is a versatile and cheap building material for the islanders and is used for handicrafts.

Famous fruit trees grow here - fig trees, mango trees, rambutan trees, bread and cucumber trees, and coffee trees. There are fragrant clove and pepper trees. There are many species growing in the forests from which rubber is obtained (various types of ficus). There are trees with valuable wood: sandalwood, camphor, ebony (“black”), casuarina (“red”), crocodile (very light wood). Teak wood and rattan wood make beautiful and durable furniture.

There are many plants of the ficus family in the forests, interesting are the multi-stemmed ficuses that form a tree-forest; there is a strangler ficus, which, entwining other plants, completely suppresses their growth. In Indonesia, there is a wide variety of tree ferns - plant relics preserved from ancient times. In the eastern part of the archipelago there are eucalyptus trees and other plants of the Australian flora. Near the ocean on the coast you can often see mangroves - these plants have adapted to salt water.

Tropical countries are given a special charm flowering plants, and the flowering here lasts all year round- some plants replace others. Indonesia grows tropical plants characteristic of the hot and humid equatorial climate, such as the versatile bougainvillea vines, which have beautifully colored bracts in raspberry, pink, yellow, cream, and orange tones. They are used as vines for vertical gardening, formed into small flowering trees, and planted in containers.

Hibiscus of various colors decorate the gardens and parks of the islands. Low plumeria trees with spectacular, rather large flowers of white, pink, cyclamen and red are often used in city decoration. Women decorate their hair with these flowers.

In the tropics, tall strelitzia and helicornia, which have unusual, drooping, spike-shaped inflorescences of yellow-red color, grow wildly and bloom almost continuously, and purple alpinias with pink-red bracts. These plants have long been grown in greenhouses in the Old World. Helicornias, alpinias and strelitzias are often used to arrange bouquets in tropical countries.

But most of all orchids are found on the islands of Indonesia. These plants do not need soil, just a little bark or tree hollow, or half a coconut. Among them there are a variety of phalaenopsis, cymbidiums, dendrobiums, vandas, stangopeas and others. The colors and shape of orchid flowers are amazing, and some types have a delicate and delicate aroma. Flowers remain decorative on the plant for up to 2 months, and when cut, up to a month. With the development of biotechnology (accelerated propagation through tissue culture), Indonesia, like many other tropical countries, is growing a large number of orchids for export.

Carnivorous plants - exotics of Indonesia

Insectivorous plants often have modified leaves in the form of a deep pitcher. To attract insects, the inner surface of the pitcher contains cells that secrete alluring nectar and hair cells that retain insects. Some jugs contain up to 2 liters of water in which insects drown. The smooth neck of the upper part of the jug does not allow trapped animals to get out. The largest species of insectivorous plants “catch” even small birds, mice, rats, and frogs. To process “caught” victims, the plant secretes special enzymes. One of the types of insectivorous plants - Nepenthes - can be found on sale with us. To keep it indoors you need increased humidity and temperature or conservatory conditions.

Another large flower is formed by gigantic amorphophallus; it is 2.2-3.5 m in height, weighs about 7 kg, and is also distinguished by a disgusting odor, reminiscent of the smell of rotten eggs, spoiled fish or meat. This is the tallest flower in the world. The predator plant blooms extremely rarely (twice in 40 years), attracting insects with a corpse-like odor, “catches” and then “digests” them.

It is interesting that one of the types of amorphophallus is grown in our country as a houseplant. It has a large tuber, from which one large carved leaf develops, but if the amorphophallus blooms (which happens infrequently), then the flower has to be taken out of the room due to the disgusting smell.

Text and photo: Natalya Yurtaeva, landscape designer

The animals of Indonesia, in the process of evolution, have acquired very unusual skills to protect themselves and their territory. Of course, this is far from full list of the entire diversity of Indonesian fauna, but these representatives are among those who definitely deserve attention!

Sunfish (moonfish)

You can find this fish off the coast of Nusa Penida, which is located in close proximity to Bali. This fish weighs more than 2000 kg and is 3-4 times the size of a person. But despite this, it poses absolutely no danger to diving enthusiasts. Theoretically, this fish can be confused with a shark due to the similarity of the same fin that scares any surfer. In fact, these defenseless creatures themselves often become victims of predators, including sharks themselves. If you want to see this miracle in person, then go to Nusa Penida from mid-July to October.

Javan peacock

Bird landmark of Indonesia. The legs and neck of these beauties are longer than those of ordinary peacocks, and they also have an additional “fan” on their heads. Among the variety of their colors you can find albinos. Unfortunately, their bright, beautiful plumage with a metallic tint does not leave various predators indifferent, so the population of this species has the status of “endangered”.

Nudibranchs

A mollusk with a complex character. The fact that this creation of nature can grow to the size of your hand is not its only surprise. This mollusk is decorated with bright, almost poisonous flowers, and the second epithet is not a bluff at all. If the nudibranch senses danger, it releases a toxic venom that can temporarily paralyze the offender. Personal experience We have no communication with them, but the fact of their existence in the waters Indian Ocean also cannot be denied.

Anoa

A small buffalo that lives on the island of Sulawesi. This type of buffalo is characterized by its smallest size compared to others. Sulawesi is home to mountain and lowland anoa, they differ only in the height of their habitat, but they look almost the same. This animal used to attract local hunters as food, but later there was talk about the toxicity of anoa prey. However, this has not stopped hunters so far, since this animal is also of particular value as a trophy for subsequent sale. Trade in such a “souvenir” is prohibited, and hunting for anoa is recognized as poaching and is punishable by law.

Clown frogfish, also known as warty frogfish or warty anglerfish

The variety of names already speaks of the versatility of this fish: it can change color in a few weeks and acquire yellow, red, pink, beige and brown colors, and even become transparent. But that’s not all the intrigue this fish is capable of. This fish literally goes on a whole fishing trip to get food for itself in the form of a squad of its own kind, but smaller in size. In order to “cast a fishing rod,” it has a special fin that attracts potential victims. Therefore, we can safely say that the fish fully lives up to all its names.

Muntjac

A red deer that can bark. These small deer, up to 40 cm tall, and especially the males, are very jealous of their territory, marking it... with an extract of their lacrimal glands. And in order to warn the advancing enemy, these animals of Indonesia make a sound very similar to a dog barking. It is noteworthy that this barking can continue for a whole hour to make sure that the territory is safe.

Mimic octopus

This miracle was first discovered in the late 90s of the last millennium off the coast of Sulawesi. Since it is completely non-venomous, in order not to fall victim to the food chain, it has evolved into a master of disguise as other dangerous animals: zebra fish, stingray, poisonous sea ​​snake, crab and over 10 more roles. He also uses his talent to mimic some background and hide in anticipation of prey. But still, despite his ingenuity, he often becomes a victim of predators.

The cutest animals in Indonesia - the eastern tarsier

Due to its small size (up to 15 cm), tiny ears, disproportionate big eyes and a long tail with a tassel on the tail causes an instant surge of affection. Mainly found on Sulawesi, but can also be found on other islands. These little fluffy balls are quite shy, so they are most active at night. Judging by photographs and eyewitness accounts, the image of Dobby from “Harry Potter” seems to be copied from this creature :)

Babiruss or pig-deer

These Indonesian animals have such an atypical appearance for a pig that some scientists still doubt whether this creature is a species of pig. In addition to the unusually small snout and excessively long legs for their species, small ears and thin skin, the structure of the male representatives has gone even further. Their upper canines grow throughout their lives, gradually curving upward and eventually cutting into their forehead. Like surfers, babirussians live according to... Active life activity occurs during low tides, and the rest period occurs during high tides.

Sumatran tiger

The smallest species of tigers of all living species. Unfortunately, according to scientific research, this species this moment has only 350 individuals, and this is due to human factor. In Indonesia, on the island of Sumatra, there are vast palm plantations that are burned by the local population to obtain palm oil. For the same reason, these animals of Indonesia are considered one of the most aggressive, since in the process of destroying them by humans natural environment habitat, tigers are forced to protect themselves and their offspring.

And finally, a video so you don’t doubt the ingenuity of the mimicking octopus and his acting talent:

A group of American scientists has summarized the latest data on the origin and phylogeography of birds in Indonesia. They showed that the key area for Indonesian birds is the island of Kalimantan, especially its Malaysian part - Borneo. Here, many birds experienced unfavorable cool, dry periods when the area of ​​tropical forests was significantly reduced. Therefore, it is in Borneo that the largest number of endemics live.

Classical zoogeography experienced the peak of its development in the middle of the last century. Then these studies were based mainly on studying the distribution of different animal species. But in the last 15–20 years, interest in zoogeography has revived. This is due to the introduction of molecular genetic techniques into this area, which stimulated the study of phylogeography (see: Phylogeography), the emergence of new methods for modeling the geology of the past, the development of paleontology, etc.

Boundaries between the Australian and Indo-Malayan faunas

The zoogeography of Indonesia has attracted the attention of scientists since the 19th century, starting with the famous studies of Alfred Russel Wallace. The fact is that this region is a kind of land bridge between Southeast Asia and Australasia - areas with very different faunas, although they are not (currently) separated by any intractable natural barriers such as oceans. The boundary between these areas should be quite sharp, and researchers were interested in where it lies.

The results of classic studies of this issue are summarized in Wallace’s line in the light of recent zoogeographic studies by the famous ornithologist and evolutionist Ernst Mayr. For the first time, in 1860, the boundary between the Australian region and the Indo-Malayan region was proposed by Wallace (it was later called the Wallace Line). Wallace himself conducted it (from south to north) between the islands of Bali and Lombok, Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and then it passed south of the Philippines (see figure). The areas lying to the west of this line belonged to the Indo-Malayan region, and to the east of it - to the Australian region.

Scientists have traced the geological and climatic history of Sundaland to determine at what time its fauna was associated with which other regions. At the beginning of the Cenozoic, about 66 million years ago, Sundaland was a peninsula connected to Southeast Asia, and therefore faunal connections at that time could only be with Asia (Fig. 2) - or, more broadly, with Laurasia. The "influx" of Gondwanan fauna may have first occurred around 50–30 million years ago. At this time, Hindustan connected with Asia, closely adjoining the then vast Sundaland. Australia was far from Sundaland all this time: only towards the end of the Oligocene - about 23 million years ago - did the Australian plate move towards Sundaland, significantly narrowing the water barrier separating them.

Thus, the origins of the current Sundaland avifauna could potentially be linked to: (1) Asia (from the Paleocene onwards), (2) Africa via India (from the early Oligocene) or via Arabia, and (3) Australia (from the late Oligocene). The connections of the birds of Sundaland with each of the named regions do come to light. The avifauna of Sundaland is most similar, of course, to the fauna of Southeast Asia. Somewhat less so with Wallacea and the Philippines. At the same time, many endemic bird species live within Sundaland - 264 out of 691 (that is, 38%).

The avifauna of Sundaland was (and is) in constant dynamics: the ranges of species shifted, the bird population of specific islands changed. The main factors are, firstly, sea level, which decreased during cold periods and increased during warm ones (which influenced the presence/absence of land bridges), and, secondly, the spread of tropical rainforests, the area of ​​which decreased during cold, dry periods. In the Cenozoic, this dynamics schematically looked like this. The Eocene was dominated by warm humid climate. At this time, land occupied vast areas, and tropical forests were widespread. This was followed by the cold Oligocene, marked by the decline of the tropical forest fauna. Then - again the warm and humid Miocene. And finally, the Pliocene is cold again.

Thus, the last peak of the flowering of the tropical fauna of Asia and Sundaland occurred in the Miocene. At this time, tropical forests reached as far north as Japan. Then, beginning in the late Miocene, the area of ​​tropical forests began to shrink and eventually became significantly smaller. The surviving massifs were isolated from each other. This led to a reduction in the ranges of many bird species that experienced such an unfavorable time for them in refugia.

Where were these refugia located? The answer to this question was provided by studying the distribution of endemic bird genera across large islands. After all, it is obvious that representatives of these particular groups experienced unfavorable geological epochs in Sundaland, and not anywhere beyond its borders.

There are a total of 23 endemic bird species in Sundaland. How are they distributed according to the most large regions inside Sundaland (Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Malacca Peninsula)? Representatives of six of them are found only on the island of Kalimantan. Two more genera live only on the island of Java. There are no genera found only on the island of Sumatra or the Malay Peninsula. Representatives of 19 endemic genera (83%) are found on Kalimantan, more than on any other island. This allowed us to assume that it was on Kalimantan that the main refugia were located.

Kalimantan is a large island, and scientists decided to find out in which part of it the birds experienced unfavorable geological periods. Malaysia's northern part of Kalimantan is often called Borneo. In the northeast of this region is the state of Sabah. It turned out that an unusually large number of endemics live here. This suggested that the main refugium was located here, where the inhabitants of the tropical forest experienced cold, dry eras.

Phylogeographic data from more than two dozen species of birds on the island of Kalimantan confirmed this assumption. Let us illustrate this with the example of two very similar forms of shama thrushes (magpie warblers) - the white-rumped ( Copsychus malabaricus) and white-capped ( C. stricklandii) (Fig. 1). The white-capped shama thrush lives in the state of Sabah and on the small island of Maratua, located 50 km off the coast of Borneo (Fig. 3). And the white-rumped shama thrush has a very wide range - it lives in the rest of Kalimantan, as well as on other islands of Sundaland and in Southeast Asia. Molecular genetic studies have shown that white-rumped shama thrushes from Sumatra, Kalimantan and the Malay Peninsula are very similar. Most likely, these areas were quickly populated by them from some refugia in Southeast Asia during the second half of the Pleistocene. Having reached Sabah, the White-rumped Shama-Thrushes met the White-capped Shama-Thrushes that lived there, which stopped their further expansion. A narrow contact zone with limited hybridization has formed at the border of the ranges.

Shama thrushes inhabit mainly lowland forests. But many endemics live in mountain forests. It turned out that a number of mountain species are characterized by features similar to those described above for shama thrushes: the populations of Sabah are different from those that inhabit the rest of the island. This is, for example, the population structure of the black-spectacled white-eye ( Chlorocharis emiliae, rice. 4), belonging to the White-eyed family (Zosteropidae). The species is endemic to Borneo, found in the montane forests, and distinguishes the birds from Sabah from those that inhabit the rest of the island.

Thus, Sabah was an important refugium where the birds experienced difficult times. In the Shama Thrush example above, this refugium was key for the White-capped Thrush. And for white-eyes, only one of two refugiums was located in this state.

To summarize, we can conclude that, firstly, within Indonesia, the island of Kalimantan was one of the key refugia where tropical birds experienced unfavorable (cold) periods (the same, by the way, is confirmed for other animals, see: M. de Bruyn et al., 2014. Borneo and Indochina are major evolutionary hotspots for Southeast Asian biodiversity). Secondly, within Kalimantan the most important refugium was located on the territory of the modern Malay state of Sabah. Whether this is true for other, “non-feathered” groups of animals remains to be seen in the future.