Do you know what biotechnology is? You've probably heard something about her. This is an important branch of modern biology. It became, like physics, one of the main priorities in the world economy and science at the end of the 20th century. Half a century ago, no one knew what biotechnology was. However, its foundations were laid by a scientist who lived in the 19th century. Biotechnology received a powerful impetus for development thanks to the work of French researcher Louis Pasteur (lived 1822-1895). He is the founder of modern immunology and microbiology.

In the 20th century, genetics and molecular biology developed rapidly using advances in physics and chemistry. At this time, the most important direction was the development of methods by which it would be possible to cultivate animal and plant cells.

Research surge

The 1980s saw a surge in biotechnology research. By this time, new methodological and methodological approaches had been created, which ensured the transition to the use of biotechnology in science and practice. There is an opportunity to make a big profit from this. According to forecasts, biotechnological goods were expected to make up a quarter of world production at the beginning of the new century.

Work carried out in our country

The active development of biotechnology took place at this time in our country. In Russia, a significant expansion of work in this area and the introduction of their results into production was also achieved in the 1980s. In our country, during this period, the first national-scale biotechnology program was developed and implemented. Special interdepartmental centers were created, biotechnologists were trained, departments were founded and laboratories were formed in universities and research institutions.

Biotechnology today

Today we are so accustomed to this word that few people ask themselves the question: “What is biotechnology?” Meanwhile, getting to know her in more detail would not be amiss. Modern processes in this field are based on methods using recombinant DNA and cellular organelles or cells. Modern biotechnology is the science of cellular and genetic engineering technologies and methods of creating and using transformed genetically biological objects in order to intensify production or create new types of products. There are three main directions, which we will now talk about.

Industrial biotechnology

In this direction, red can be distinguished as a variety. It is considered the most important area of ​​​​application of biotechnology. They play an increasingly important role in the development of medicines (in particular, for the treatment of cancer). Biotechnology is also of great importance in diagnostics. They are used, for example, in the creation of biosensors and DNA chips. In Austria, red biotechnology today enjoys well-deserved recognition. It is even considered the engine of development for other industries.

Let's move on to the next type of industrial biotechnology. This is green biotechnology. It is used when selection is carried out. This biotechnology today provides special methods with the help of which countermeasures against herbicides, viruses, fungi, and insects are developed. All this is also very important, you will agree.

Genetic engineering is of particular importance to the field of green biotechnology. With its help, the prerequisites are created for the transfer of genes from one plant species to others, and thus scientists can influence the development of stable characteristics and properties.

Gray biotechnology is used to protect the environment. Its methods are used for sewage treatment, soil remediation, gas and exhaust air purification, and waste recycling.

But that's not all. There is also white biotechnology, which covers the scope of use in the chemical industry. Biotechnological methods in this case are used for the environmentally safe and efficient production of enzymes, antibiotics, amino acids, vitamins, and alcohol.

And finally, the last variety. Blue biotechnology is based on the technical application of various organisms as well as marine biology processes. In this case, the focus of research is on the biological organisms inhabiting the World Ocean.

Let's move on to the next direction - cell engineering.

Cell engineering

She is involved in producing hybrids, cloning, studying cellular mechanisms, “hybrid” cells, and drawing up genetic maps. Its beginning dates back to the 1960s, when the method of hybridization appeared. By this time, cultivation methods had already been improved, and methods for growing tissues had also emerged. Somatic hybridization, in which hybrids are created without the participation of the sexual process, is now carried out by cultivating different cells of lines of the same species or using cells of different species.

Hybridomas and their significance

Hybridomas, that is, hybrids between lymphocytes (regular cells of the immune system) and tumor cells, have the properties of the cell lines of the parents. They are capable, like cancer cells, of dividing indefinitely on nutrient artificial media (that is, they are “immortal”), and can also, like lymphocytes, produce homogeneous cells with a certain specificity. These antibodies are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, as sensitive reagents for organic substances, etc.

Another area of ​​cell engineering is the manipulation of cells that do not have nuclei, with free nuclei, as well as with other fragments. These manipulations come down to combining cell parts. Similar experiments, together with microinjections of dyes or chromosomes into the cell, are carried out to find out how the cytoplasm and nucleus influence each other, what factors regulate the activity of certain genes, etc.

By combining cells from different embryos at early stages of development, so-called mosaic animals are grown. Otherwise they are called chimeras. They consist of 2 types of cells, differing in genotypes. Through these experiments, they find out how differentiation of tissues and cells occurs during the development of the organism.

Cloning

Modern biotechnology is unthinkable without cloning. Experiments related to the transplantation of nuclei of various somatic cells into enucleated (that is, nucleated) animal eggs with further cultivation of the resulting embryo into an adult organism have been going on for decades. However, they have become very widely known since the end of the 20th century. Today we call such experiments animal cloning.

Few people today are unfamiliar with Dolly the sheep. In 1996, near Edinburgh (Scotland) at the Rosslyn Institute, the first cloning of a mammal was carried out, which was carried out from an adult cell. It was the sheep Dolly who became the first such clone.

Genetic engineering

Having appeared in the early 1970s, today it has achieved significant success. Her methods transform the cells of mammals, yeast, and bacteria into real “factories” for the production of any protein. This achievement of science provides an opportunity to study in detail the functions and structure of proteins in order to use them as medicines.

The basics of biotechnology are widely used today. Escherichia coli, for example, has become in our time a supplier of the important hormones somatotropin and insulin. Applied genetic engineering aims to construct recombinant DNA molecules. When introduced into a certain genetic apparatus, they can give the body properties beneficial to humans. For example, it is possible to obtain “biological reactors,” that is, animals, plants and microorganisms that would produce substances that are pharmacologically important for humans. Advances in biotechnology have made it possible to develop animal breeds and plant varieties with traits valuable to humans. Using genetic engineering methods, it is possible to carry out genetic certification, create DNA vaccines, diagnose various genetic diseases, etc.

Conclusion

So, we have answered the question: “What is biotechnology?” Of course, the article provides only basic information about it and briefly lists the directions. This introductory information gives a general idea of ​​what modern biotechnologies exist and how they are used.

Bioengineering is one of the most promising scientific areas, with the help of which it is possible to create new organs or even body parts for their further transplantation into a living person. In the long term, bioengineering will allow a sick person to receive a new eye, heart and other vital organs.

Many believe that bioengineers are trying to “play God,” and their achievements can be used not to save lives, but to improve the human body, contrary to the laws of nature. Now this seems like science fiction, but recent advances in bioengineering suggest otherwise.

Ear

The human ear is a rather complex organ in its structure. However, bioengineering, as it turns out, is capable of much. Thus, scientists at Princeton University, led by Associate Professor Michael McAlpine, managed to create an artificial human ear, which they presented in May 2013. To do this, bioengineers used three-dimensional printing technology, with which they created an ear from animal cells using electronic devices. If it is transplanted into a person, he will be able to detect radio frequencies that were previously inaccessible to him.

Blood vessels

The human circulatory system is a very complex mechanism, failure of which can lead to diabetes, cardiovascular and kidney diseases. But bioengineering works wonders. In 2011, Cytograft Tissue Engineering specialists managed to create artificial blood vessels. They were implanted in three patients suffering from kidney diseases. The results of the experiment amazed the scientists: 8 months after the operation, the blood vessels created using bioengineering were still working properly.

Heart

In the 1980s, cardiac surgeons made a real breakthrough by transplanting an artificial heart into a person. Of course, a living heart is difficult to replace, but with the development of science, advances in bioengineering have made it possible to improve the artificial heart using biological materials, and specialists from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have even managed to print a heart on a 3D printer from rodent cells. Let's hope that soon advances in bioengineering will make it possible to “print” an artificial human heart that is not inferior to the real one.

Liver

Bioengineering is already close to creating an artificial human liver. Thus, miniature samples of this organ were created in 2010 by specialists at the Baltic Medical Center at Wake Forest University using animal and human cells. In addition, an experiment was conducted at Yokohama University, as a result of which liver “embryos” were created. But to create a functioning organ, thousands of such elements will be required.

Trachea

Even though bioengineering cannot yet give humanity an artificial liver, it can create a trachea. Thus, in the American state of Illinois, 2.5-year-old Hannah Warren was transplanted with an artificially grown trachea. The operation was successful, but on July 7, 2013, the girl died as a result of a previous operation on the esophagus.

Intervertebral discs

Even a slight displacement of the intervertebral discs leads, at best, to severe back pain, and at worst, surgery cannot be avoided. But as a result of the operation, doctors simply connect the vertebrae to each other, depriving the person of mobility. In rare cases, artificial discs are used, which wear out quickly. Fortunately, here too bioengineering lived up to all expectations. This year, specialists at Duke University created a disc that, when implanted into the interdiscal space, is capable of restoring the corresponding tissue, essentially growing an intervertebral disc in the patient’s body.

Intestines

The use of collagen and stem cells has enabled bioengineering to create a small artificial intestine. However, scientists still have a long way to go to create a full-fledged organ.

Bud

The kidney is one of the most sought after organs. In the United States alone, about 60 thousand patients suffering from kidney failure are on a waiting list for a kidney transplant. Perhaps specialists from the University of California will be able to solve this problem. Using the latest advances in bioengineering, they are working to create an artificial kidney made from silicone nanofilters and human kidney cells. Already in 2017, scientists hope to test this device.

Main achievements and prospects for the development of agricultural biotechnology

Biotechnological approaches allow modern plant breeders to isolate individual genes responsible for desired traits and move them from the genome of one plant to the genome of another - transgenesis.

Thanks to biotechnology, plants have been produced with improved nutritional properties, herbicide resistance and with built-in protection against viruses and pests (soybeans, tomatoes, cotton, papaya). GM crops used in livestock production - corn, soybeans, canola and cotton

Using genetic methods, strains of microorganisms (Ashbya gossypii, Pseudomonas denitrificans, etc.) were also obtained that produce tens of thousands of times more vitamins (C, B 3, B 13, etc.) than the original forms.

Prospects:

1. Biotechnology specialists are developing ways to increase the amount of protein in plants, which will make it possible to give up meat in the future.

2. For the agricultural complex, developments are underway in the direction of improving the self-defense functions of plants from insect pests, through the release of poison.

3. One of the rapidly developing branches of biotechnology is the technology of microbial synthesis of substances valuable to humans. Further development of this industry will entail a redistribution of the roles of crop production and animal husbandry on the one hand, and microbial synthesis on the other, in the formation of the food base of mankind.

4. The industrial use of biotechnology achievements is based on the technique of creating recombinant DNA molecules. Designing the necessary genes makes it possible to control the heredity and vital activity of animals, plants and microorganisms and create organisms with new properties.

5. As sources of raw materials for biotechnology, renewable resources of non-edible plant materials and agricultural waste, which serve as an additional source of both feed substances and secondary fuel (biogas) and organic fertilizers, are becoming increasingly important.

6. Biodegradation (recycling) of cellulose. Complete breakdown of cellulose into glucose can solve many problems - obtaining large amounts of carbohydrates and cleaning the environment from forest waste and agricultural production. Currently, genes for cellulolytic enzymes have already been isolated from some microorganisms. Methods are being developed to transfer them to yeast, which could first hydrolyze cellulose to glucose and then convert it to alcohol.

Latest advances in medical biotechnology

In the field of medical biotechnology, interferons—proteins that can suppress the reproduction of viruses—have been developed.

Production of human insulin using genetically modified bacteria, production of erythropoietin (a hormone that stimulates the formation of red blood cells in the bone marrow.

It has become possible to produce polymers that replace human organs and tissues (kidneys, blood vessels, valves, heart-lung apparatus, etc.).

Mass immunization (vaccination) has become the most accessible and cost-effective way to prevent infectious diseases. Thus, over 30 years of vaccinating Russian children against measles, the incidence of measles has decreased by 620 times.

Methods for producing antibiotics have been developed. The discovery of antibiotics revolutionized the treatment of infectious diseases. Gone are the ideas about the incurability of many bacterial infections (plague, tuberculosis, sepsis, syphilis, etc.).

One of the latest achievements in biotechnological diagnostics is the method of biosensors, which “catch” molecules associated with diseases and send signals to sensors. Biosensor diagnostics are used to determine glucose in the blood of diabetic patients. It is hoped that over time it will be possible to implant biosensors into the blood vessels of patients to more accurately monitor their insulin needs.

It has become possible not only to create “biological reactors”, transgenic animals, genetically modified plants, but also to carry out genetic certification (a complete study and analysis of a person’s genotype, usually carried out immediately after birth, to determine predisposition to various diseases, possibly inadequate ( allergic) reaction to certain medications, as well as a tendency to certain types of activities). Genetic certification makes it possible to predict and reduce the risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancer, study and prevent neurodegenerative diseases and aging processes, etc.

Scientists have been able to identify genes responsible for the manifestation of various pathologies and contributing to an increase in life expectancy.

Opportunities have emerged for early diagnosis of hereditary diseases and timely prevention of hereditary pathology.

The most important area for medical biotechnology has become cell engineering, in particular the technology for producing monoclonal antibodies, which are produced in culture or in the animal’s body by hybrid lymphoid cells - hybridomas. Monoclonal antibody technology has had a major impact on basic and applied medical research and medical practice. Based on them, new immunological analysis systems have been developed and used - radioimmunoassay and enzyme immunoassay. They make it possible to determine vanishingly small concentrations of specific antigens and antibodies in the body.

Microchips are now considered the most advanced technology in diagnosing diseases. They are used for early diagnosis of infectious, oncological and genetic diseases, allergens, as well as in the study of new drugs.

Related information.

Lecture on biotechnology No. 1

Introduction to biotechnology. Environmental, agricultural, industrial biotechnology.

Biotechnological production of proteins, enzymes, antibiotics, vitamins, interferon.

Question No. 1

Since ancient times, humans have used biotechnology in winemaking, brewing or baking. But the processes underlying these industries remained mysterious for a long time. Their nature became clear only at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when methods for cultivating microorganisms and pasteurization were developed, and pure lines of bacteria and enzymes were isolated. To designate the various technologies most closely related to biology, such names as “applied microbiology”, “applied biochemistry”, “enzyme technology”, “bioengineering”, “applied genetics”, “applied biology” were previously used. This led to the emergence of a new industry - biotechnology.

French chemist Louis Pasteur proved in 1867 that fermentation is the result of the activity of microorganisms. German biochemist Eduard Buchner clarified that it is also caused by a cell-free extract containing enzymes that catalyze chemical reactions. The use of pure enzymes for processing raw materials gave impetus to the development of zymology. For example, alpha-amylase is required to break down starch.

At the same time, important discoveries were made in the field of nascent genetics, without which modern biotechnology would be unthinkable. In 1865, the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel introduced the Brunn Society of Naturalists to his “Experiments on Plant Hybrids,” in which he described the laws of heredity. In 1902, biologists Walter Sutton and Theodore Boveri suggested that the transmission of heredity is associated with material carriers - chromosomes. Even then it was known that a living organism consists of cells. The German pathologist Rudolf Virchow complements the cell theory with the principle “every cell is from a cell.” And the experiments of the botanist Gottlieb Haberlandt demonstrated that a cell can exist in an artificial environment and separately from the body. The latter's experiments led to the discovery of the role of vitamins, mineral supplements and hormones.

Then there was a word

The year of birth of the term “biotechnology” is considered to be 1919, when the manifesto “Biotechnology of processing meat, fats and milk on large agricultural farms” was published. Its author is the Hungarian agricultural economist, then Minister of Food Karl Ereky. The manifesto described the processing of agricultural raw materials into other food products using biological organisms. Ereki predicted a new era in human history, comparing the discovery of this method with the greatest technological revolutions of the past: the emergence of the productive economy in the Neolithic era and metallurgy in the Bronze Age. But until the late 1920s, biotechnology simply meant the use of microorganisms for fermentation. In the 1930s, medical biotechnology developed. Discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming, penicillin, produced from the fungus Penicillium notatum, began to be produced on an industrial scale already in the 1940s. And in the late 1960s and early 1970s, an attempt was made to combine the food industry with the oil refining industry. British Petroleum has developed a technology for bacterial synthesis of feed protein from oil industry waste.

In 1953, a discovery was made that subsequently caused a revolution in biotechnology: James Watson and Francis Crick deciphered the structure of DNA. And in the 1970s, manipulation of hereditary material was added to biotechnological techniques. In just two decades, all the necessary tools for this were discovered: reverse transcriptase was isolated - an enzyme that allows you to “rewrite” the genetic code from RNA back into DNA, enzymes were discovered for cutting DNA, as well as a polymerase chain reaction for repeated reproduction of individual DNA fragments.

In 1973, the first genetically recombinant organism was created: a genetic element from a frog was transferred to a bacterium. The era of genetic engineering began, which almost immediately ended: in 1975 in the city of Asilomar (USA), at the International Congress dedicated to the study of recombinant DNA molecules, concerns about the use of new technologies were first expressed.

“It was not politicians, religious groups or journalists who sounded the alarm, as one might expect. It was the scientists themselves,” recalled Paul Berg, one of the organizers of the conference and a pioneer in the creation of recombinant DNA molecules. “Many scientists feared that public debate would lead to undue restrictions on molecular biology, but they encouraged responsible debate that led to consensus.” Congress participants called for a moratorium on a number of potentially dangerous studies.

Meanwhile, synthetic biology has evolved from biotechnology and genetic engineering, which deals with the design of new biological components and systems and the redesign of existing ones. The first sign of synthetic biology was the artificial synthesis of transfer RNA in 1970, and today it is already possible to synthesize entire genomes from elementary structures. In 1978, Genentech constructed in the laboratory the E. coli bacterium that synthesizes human insulin. From this moment on, genetic recombination finally entered the arsenal of biotechnology and is considered almost synonymous with it. At the same time, the first transfer of new genes into the genomes of animal and plant cells was carried out. 1980 Nobel laureate Walter Gilbert stated: “We can obtain for medical purposes or commercial use virtually any human protein capable of influencing important functions of the human body.”

In 1985, the first field trials of transgenic plants resistant to herbicides, insects, viruses and bacteria took place. Plant patents appear. Molecular genetics is beginning to flourish, and analytical methods such as sequencing, that is, determining the primary sequence of proteins and nucleic acids, are rapidly developing.

In 1995, the first transgenic plant (the Flavr Savr tomato) was released onto the market, and by 2010 transgenic crops were grown in 29 countries on 148 million hectares (10% of total cultivated land). In 1996, the first cloned animal was born - Dolly the sheep. By 2010, more than 20 species of animals had been cloned: cats, dogs, wolves, horses, pigs, mouflons.

Areas of biotechnology and products obtained with its help

Technology and biotechnology

Technology- these are methods and techniques used to obtain a certain product from the source material (raw materials). Very often, to obtain one product, not one, but several sources of raw materials are required, not one method or technique, but a sequence of several. All the variety of technologies can be divided into three main classes:

Physical and mechanical technologies;

Chemical technologies;

Biotechnology.

In physical and mechanical technologies the source material (raw materials) in the process of obtaining a product changes its shape or state of aggregation without changing its chemical composition (for example, wood processing technology for the production of wooden furniture, various methods for producing metal products: nails, machine parts, etc.).

In chemical technologies in the process of obtaining a product, raw materials undergo changes in chemical composition (for example, the production of polyethylene from natural gas, alcohol from natural gas or wood, synthetic rubber from natural gas).

Biotechnology as a science can be considered in two temporal and essential dimensions: modern and traditional, classical.

The latest biotechnology (bioengineering) is the science of genetic engineering and cellular methods and technologies for the creation and use of genetically transformed (modified) plants, animals and microorganisms in order to intensify production and obtain new types of products for various purposes.

In traditional, classic In a sense, biotechnology can be defined as the science of methods and technologies for production, transportation, storage and processing of agricultural and other products using conventional, non-transgenic (natural and breeding) plants, animals and microorganisms, under natural and artificial conditions.

The highest achievement of the latest biotechnology is genetic transformation, transfer of foreign (natural or artificially created) donor genes into recipient cells of plants, animals and microorganisms, production of transgenic organisms with new or enhanced properties and characteristics.

Purpose of biotechnology research- increasing production efficiency and searching for biological systems that can be used to obtain the target product.

Biotechnology makes it possible to reproduce the desired products in unlimited quantities, using new technologies that make it possible to transfer genes into producer cells or into the whole organism (transgenic animals and plants), synthesize peptides, and create artificial vaccines.

Main directions of biotechnology development

The expansion of the areas of application of biotechnology significantly affects the improvement of human living standards (Fig. 1.2). The introduction of biotechnological processes produces results most quickly in medicine, but, according to many experts, the main economic effect will be obtained in agriculture and the chemical industry.

Microarrays, cell cultures, monoclonal antibodies and protein engineering are just a few of the modern biotechnological techniques used at various stages of development of many types of products. Understanding the molecular basis of biological processes makes it possible to significantly reduce the costs of development and preparation of production of a certain product, as well as improve its quality. For example, agricultural biotech companies developing insect-resistant plant varieties can measure the amount of protective protein in a cell culture without wasting resources on growing the plants themselves; Pharmaceutical companies can use cell cultures and microarrays to test the safety and effectiveness of drugs, as well as to identify possible side effects in the early stages of drug development.

Genetically modified animals, in whose bodies processes occur that reflect the physiology of various human diseases, provide scientists with completely adequate models for testing the effect of a particular substance on the body. It also allows companies to identify the safest and most effective drugs earlier in development.

All this indicates the importance of biotechnology and the wide possibilities of its application in various sectors of the national economy. What areas are the highest priority in this area? Let's look at them.

1. Improving the safety of biotechnological production for humans and the environment. It is necessary to create working systems that will function only under strictly controlled conditions. For example, E. coli strains used in biotechnology lack supra-membrane structures (envelopes); such bacteria simply cannot exist outside laboratories or outside special technological installations. Multicomponent systems, each of which is not capable of independent existence, also have increased safety.

2. Reducing the share of human industrial waste. Industrial waste is its by-products that cannot be used by humans or other components of the biosphere and the use of which is unprofitable or involves some kind of risk. Such waste accumulates within production premises (territories) or is released into the environment. One should strive to change the “useful product/waste” ratio in favor of a useful product. This is achieved in various ways. First, waste needs to be put to good use. Secondly, they can be sent for recycling, creating a closed technological cycle. Finally, the work system itself can be modified to reduce waste.

3. Reducing energy costs for product production, i.e. the introduction of energy-saving technologies. A fundamental solution to this problem is possible primarily through the use of renewable energy sources. For example, the annual energy consumption of fossil fuels is comparable to the net gross production of all photosynthetic organisms on Earth. To transform solar energy into forms available for modern power plants, energy plantations of fast-growing plants are created (including using cellular engineering methods). The resulting biomass is used to produce cellulose, biofuel, and vermicompost. The comprehensive benefits of such technologies are obvious. The use of cell engineering methods for constant renewal of planting material ensures the production in the shortest possible time of a large number of plants free from viruses and mycoplasmas; At the same time, there is no need to create mother plantations. The load on natural plantings of woody plants is reduced (they are largely cut down to obtain cellulose and fuel), and the need for fossil fuels is reduced (in general, it is environmentally unfavorable, since its combustion produces under-oxidized substances). When biofuels are used, carbon dioxide and water vapor are produced, which enter the atmosphere and are then recombined by plants on energy plantations.

4. Creation of multicomponent plant systems. The quality of agricultural products significantly deteriorates when mineral fertilizers and pesticides are used, which cause colossal damage to natural ecosystems. There are various ways to overcome the negative consequences of chemicalization of agricultural production. First of all, it is necessary to abandon monocultures, i.e., the use of a limited set of biotypes (varieties, breeds, strains). The disadvantages of monoculture were identified at the end of the 19th century; they are obvious. Firstly, in a monoculture, competitive relations between the cultivated organisms increase; at the same time, monoculture has only a one-sided effect on competing organisms (weeds). Secondly, there is a selective removal of mineral nutrition elements, which leads to soil degradation. Finally, monoculture is not resistant to pathogens and pests. Therefore, during the 20th century. it was maintained by exceptionally high production intensity. Of course, the use of monocultures of intensive varieties (breeds, strains) simplifies the development of production technology. For example, with the help of high technologies, plant varieties have been created that are resistant to a certain pesticide, which can be used in high doses when cultivating these particular varieties. However, in this case, the question arises of the safety of such a working system for humans and the environment. In addition, sooner or later races of pathogens (pests) resistant to this pesticide will appear.

Therefore, a systematic transition from monoculture to multicomponent (polyclonal) compositions, including different biotypes of cultivated organisms, is necessary. Multicomponent compositions should include organisms with different developmental rhythms, with different attitudes to the dynamics of physicochemical environmental factors, competitors, pathogens and pests. In genetically heterogeneous systems, compensatory interactions of individuals with different genotypes arise, reducing the level of intraspecific competition and automatically increasing the pressure of cultivated organisms on competing organisms of other species (weeds). In relation to pathogens and pests, such a heterogeneous ecosystem is characterized by collective group immunity, which is determined by the interaction of many structural and functional features of individual biotypes.

5. Development of new drugs for medicine. Currently, active research is underway in the field of medicine: various types of new drugs are being created - targeted and individual.

Targeted drugs. The main causes of cancer are uncontrolled cell division and disruption of apoptosis. The action of drugs designed to eliminate them can be directed at any of the molecules or cellular structures involved in these processes. Research conducted in the field of functional genomics has already provided us with information about the molecular changes occurring in precancerous cells. Based on the data obtained, diagnostic tests can be created to identify molecular markers that signal the onset of the oncological process before the first visible cell abnormalities appear or symptoms of the disease appear.

Most chemotherapy drugs target proteins involved in cell division. Unfortunately, this kills not only malignant cells, but often normal dividing cells of the body, such as cells of the hematopoietic system and hair follicles. To prevent this side effect, some companies have begun developing drugs that stop the cell cycles of healthy cells immediately before administering a dose of a chemotherapy agent.

Individual preparations. At the current stage of scientific development, the era of individualized medicine begins, in which the genetic differences of patients will be taken into account for the most effective use of drugs. Using functional genomics data, it is possible to identify genetic variants that make specific patients susceptible to the negative side effects of some drugs and susceptible to others. This individual therapeutic approach, based on knowledge of the patient’s genome, is called pharmacogenomics.

Biotechnology is the conscious production of products and materials necessary for humans using living organisms and biological processes.

Since time immemorial, biotechnology has been used mainly in the food and light industries: in winemaking, bakery, fermentation of dairy products, in the processing of flax and leather, based on the use of microorganisms. In recent decades, the possibilities of biotechnology have expanded enormously. This is due to the fact that its methods are more profitable than conventional ones for the simple reason that in living organisms, biochemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes occur under optimal conditions (temperature and pressure), are more productive, environmentally friendly and do not require chemical reagents that poison the environment.

Biotechnology objects are numerous representatives of groups of living organisms - microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, protozoa, yeasts), plants, animals, as well as cells isolated from them and subcellular components (organelles) and even enzymes. Biotechnology is based on physiological and biochemical processes occurring in living systems, which result in the release of energy, synthesis and breakdown of metabolic products, and the formation of chemical and structural components of the cell.

The main direction of biotechnology is the production, using microorganisms and cultured eukaryotic cells, of biologically active compounds (enzymes, vitamins, hormones), medications (antibiotics, vaccines, serums, highly specific antibodies, etc.), as well as valuable compounds (feed additives, for example, essential amino acids, feed proteins, etc.).

Genetic engineering methods have made it possible to synthesize in industrial quantities hormones such as insulin and somatotropin (growth hormone), which are necessary for the treatment of human genetic diseases.

One of the most important areas of modern biotechnology is also the use of biological methods to combat environmental pollution (biological treatment of wastewater, contaminated soil, etc.).

Thus, to extract metals from wastewater, bacterial strains capable of accumulating uranium, copper, and cobalt can be widely used. Other bacteria of the genera Rhodococcus and Nocardia are successfully used for emulsification and sorption of petroleum hydrocarbons from the aquatic environment. They are capable of separating the water and oil phases, concentrating oil, and purifying wastewater from oil impurities. By assimilating petroleum hydrocarbons, such microorganisms convert them into proteins, B vitamins and carotenes.

Some of the halobacteria strains are successfully used to remove fuel oil from sandy beaches. Genetically engineered strains have also been obtained that can break down octane, camphor, naphthalene, and xylene and effectively utilize crude oil.

The use of biotechnology methods to protect plants from pests and diseases is of great importance.

Biotechnology is making its way into heavy industry, where microorganisms are used to extract, convert and process natural resources. Already in ancient times, the first metallurgists obtained iron from bog ores produced by iron bacteria, which are capable of concentrating iron. Now methods have been developed for the bacterial concentration of a number of other valuable metals: manganese, zinc, copper, chromium, etc. These methods are used to develop waste dumps of old mines and poor deposits, where traditional mining methods are not economically viable.

Biotechnology solves not only specific problems of science and production. It has a more global methodological task - it expands and accelerates the scale of human impact on living nature and promotes the adaptation of living systems to the conditions of human existence, i.e. to the noosphere. Biotechnology, thus, acts as a powerful factor in anthropogenic adaptive evolution.

Biotechnology, genetic and cell engineering have promising prospects. As more and more new vectors appear, people will use them to introduce the necessary genes into the cells of plants, animals and humans. This will make it possible to gradually get rid of many hereditary human diseases, force cells to synthesize the necessary drugs and biologically active compounds, and then directly proteins and essential amino acids used in food. Using methods already mastered by nature, biotechnologists hope to obtain hydrogen through photosynthesis - the most environmentally friendly fuel of the future, electricity, and convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia under normal conditions.