The course of the American War of Independence. North American colonies in the struggle for independence

This topic is so large that without any problems you can write more than one volume of scientific literature on it; in this article you can learn a brief history of the American War of Independence.
American Revolutionary War - great military conflict between the forces of the Thirteen Colonies and British forces, which unfolded in North America from 1775 to 1783 gg.

Causes of the American War of Independence

Control over the trade and economy of the thirteen colonies, as a result of which none of the colonies had the right to conduct trade relations with other states except Great Britain;
The constant presence of British troops, which caused discontent among the population of the colonies;
The English monarch's refusal of Benjamin Franklin's petition, which sought partial freedom for the colonies;
Developed industry and agriculture could fully provide the colonies with everything they needed, which made it possible to openly oppose their metropolis;
First clashes
Even before the colonists declared independence, several local skirmishes occurred between the future Americans and the British, which further upset relations between the mother country and the colonies. IN 1772 g One day, a group of colonists attacked an English ship that ran aground, wounded the captain, stole all the valuable cargo, and then burned the ship.
The following year something world-famous happened "Boston Tea Party"", as a result of which Great Britain lost a large portion of expensive tea.

Progress of the American War of Independence

The War of Independence began when the British declared the state of Massachusetts a rebellious territory. WITHBattle of Concord April 19, 1775 was the first battle in the history of the Revolutionary War. And in this first battle The rebel forces of the colonists were victorious.
Soon after this battle, George Washington announced a general mobilization - so The creation of the American army began.
The British sent T. Greyju, who at that time had 4 thousand soldiers settled in Boston, to suppress this uprising. Having gathered a small army, Washington headed for Boston with the goal of recapturing it to the British. Seeing this, the British sent additional forces to counterattack, and this is what happened Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775). During its course, neither side received a solid victory, but the British suffered quite heavy losses, which is why the morale of the rebels increased.
IN March 1776 and Boston was surrendered by the British and after that Washington went to strengthen New York.
Meanwhile, rebel forces attacked British forces in Canada, winning several victories and capturing the city of Montreal. A small rebel army decided to attack Quebec, but were defeated and retreated.
IN April 177 6 years, large forces of the British (about 35 thousand people) attacked the defensive positions of Washington (a little more than 10 thousand people) in New York. Battle of Long Island began with an attack by the British, which ended in complete victory, and Washington's forces were forced to retreat. This battle is the largest during the entire War of Independence.
In September of the same year Americans have lost control of New York. The next year did not begin in the best way for the colonists. IN Battle of Brandywine The British again managed to win a landslide victory over Washington's Continental Army.
October 1777- This is a turning point in the war, as Washington wins its first significant victory over the British at the Battle of Saratoga. For 1778-1779 The British capture South Carolina and Georgia, but retreat to New York when the French join the rebel army.
The decisive battle of the Revolutionary War occurs in 1781 - the Battle of Yorktown. During this battle, the British suffered a crushing defeat. The outcome of the war was already predetermined, although significant British forces still remained on the continent.
The last battle happened at sea in 1783 y – at Cuddalore, as a result of which the British fleet was defeated. Two months later, on September 3, 1783, Great Britain recognized the independence of its colonies.

Consequences of the American Revolutionary War

And the result was creation of a new powerful state - the USA and the new American people. Great Britain lost power in North America forever, which greatly undermined its economy and dominance on the Atlantic Ocean.
The first president of the new state became the commander-in-chief of the colonist forces - J. Washington.
One of the consequences of the War of Independence was the beginning of the revolution in France. The French saw that it was possible to overthrow the power of the monarch, as the Americans did, which raised the revolutionary spirit of the people and gave impetus to decisive action.

Features of the economic development of the northern colonies of England at the beginning of the 18th century.

The main occupation is grain farming, cattle breeding, forest development and fishing. The main economic system was small farming; there were large landholdings only around the river. Hudson in the Colony of New York (passed to England in 1674). The small scale of production and the nature of production excluded the widespread use of slave labor.

By the end of the 17th century. The agriculture of the northern colonies provided a significant surplus of goods that were sold: bread, corn, meat, fish and timber. Industry arose mainly in the processing of agricultural products and shipbuilding due to the cheapness and abundance of timber. Building naval ships in New England ended up being significantly cheaper. 1676 – 30-40 ships, 1760 – 300-400.

The merchants of the northern colonies actively traded with the southern colonies and the islands of the West Indies, buying molasses and sugar there. As a result of this exchange, rum distilleries were built in the north. The fur trade also played an important role. This trade was barter in nature. The main supplier of furs was the Hudson's Bay Company. Huge incomes were precisely because of the difference in barter trade with the Indians. So the profit in 1767 amounted to 3000%.

Due to the availability and abundance of timber and its cheapness, most of the ships for the English fleet were built in the northern colonies. The cheapness of wood also ensured the profitability of iron smelting (at that time charcoal, rather than coke, was used), and a large amount of iron ore, an abundance of rivers and the absence of guild traditions made it possible to hope for the rapid development of “iron-making” manufactories.

Features of the economic development of the southern colonies of England in the New World.

The main crop of the southern colonies, tobacco, quickly depleted the soil, and this forced planters not to fertilize and improve old territories, but to capture new ones. North Carolina, one of the southern colonies, separated from South Carolina in 1713, was closer to the northern colonies in natural and economic characteristics. The main occupation is forest development, cattle breeding, i.e. industries where slave labor could not be used. Growing tobacco, rice and cotton was difficult due to natural conditions. Another “southern” colony - Georgia (established in 1733) also had a number of its own characteristics related more to military-political circumstances: the ban on slavery, because the presence of slaves weakened the colony militarily, so Governor Oglethorpe gave land only to people capable of military service. As a result, small farming predominated in this southern colony, as in the north. In addition, a license was introduced for trade with Indians and a ban on the sale of rum.

Features of policy towards Indians in the English colonies.

Conflicts with Indians arose in both the northern and southern colonies.

In the north, the Iroquois offered serious resistance to the English colonists.

In the south, small and warring Indian tribes were displaced by English settlers.

On the eve of the Seven Years' War, the British government made an attempt to enlist the support of Indian tribes. In 1754, a congress of 7 northern colonies was convened in Albany (Colony of New York), at which the leaders of the Iroquois also spoke. Taking into account the complaints and wishes of the leaders of the Indian tribes, the British government appointed special agents for Indian affairs. The agents were tasked with informing the government of their moods. In 1756, the post of Director of Indian Affairs was created and filled by William Johnson. Johnson managed to win the trust of the Iroquois tribes. He was even adopted by one of the tribes, the Mohawk tribe, and learned their language, customs and customs. These measures ensured England's support for the Iroquois during the Seven Years' War and kept them from joining Pontiac's rebellion.

At the end of the Seven Years' War in 1762, an uprising of Indian tribes broke out on French territory under the leadership of the leader of the Ottawa tribe, Pontiac. The main reason for the uprising was the seizure of their lands by English colonists, who saw them as allies of France. Pontiac managed to create a vast union of tribes from Lake. Upper to lower Mississippi. In May 1763, rebel Indians attempted to capture British posts in this territory. Pontiac himself attempted to capture Fort Detroit. After the failure of the assault, the siege of the fort lasted 5 months, but without waiting for the help promised by the French, the siege was stopped. The attempt to capture Pittsburgh was also unsuccessful. In the rest of the territory, the Pontiac Indians achieved serious successes: out of 12 fortresses along the border strip, they captured 9, and the British left the tenth themselves. Thus, the territory ceded by France at the end of the Seven Years' War seemed to be lost to England. Unwilling to come to terms with this, England sent significant military forces, in addition, government agents tried to split the unity of the tribes, using tricks and bribery. Yielding to the insistence of some leaders, Pontiac made peace in 1765. Later, in 1769, Pontiac was killed as a result of civil strife incited by British Indian agents.

Administration in the English Colonies.

Initially, all English settlers were considered subjects of the English king and therefore submitted to the authority of his representatives - the governors. However, since

Colonies were formed through the growth of different settlements, both in type and in population composition (self-governing Puritan communities, trading posts of merchant campaigns, fiefs),

They had to provide themselves with everything necessary both due to the remoteness and due to the turbulent events in the middle of the 17th century,

Then local authorities arose, called in different colonies either “assemblies”, or “general meetings” or “conventions”. As a rule, the assemblies consisted of 2 chambers, the upper one, more often called the Council, was appointed by the governor, the lower one was elected by open voting of the male population based on the property qualification and residence qualification. Initially, the majority of the first settlers were interested in them, who accepted these rules; later, these qualifications became the subject of an intense struggle between the wealthy (descendants of the first settlers) and the rest, the “newcomer” part of the population. The Assemblies (Conventions) made local legislative decisions and determined the amount of funds for the maintenance of the governor and his officials. As a result, there was a constant struggle between the governors and the Assemblies, which ended by the beginning of the 18th century. division of powers in the English colonies: legislative - to the assemblies, executive - to the governors.

Increased oppression of English colonists in the mid-18th century.

In 1750, in connection with the increase in the production of “raw iron” in the colonies (encouraged by the law of 1719) and the emergence of “iron-making” manufactories, the English Parliament, at the insistence of entrepreneurs associated with metallurgy, who wanted to increase their income and force the colonists to purchase products made only of English-made iron, passed a law banning the construction of rolling mills and “iron cutting workshops” in the colonies. However, the same law still encouraged the production of “semi-finished products” (blanks) for the English iron industry. As a result, the production of horseshoes, nails, and buttons was prohibited in the colonies. Inventive colonists circumvented this law by creating “charitable schools,” where “students learned to work on machines,” making “student products” along the way. A way to get around the ban was to distribute iron to farmers for subsequent processing; this was done by special “resellers”, thereby linking permitted mining manufactories and illegal farming production, which was very difficult to control, both due to the remoteness of individual farms and because in cities Only 4% of the population of the colonies lived. In addition, it was difficult to determine whether the farmer was making these products (nails, horseshoes, etc.) for himself or for sale. In essence, it was a type of "dispersed" manufacture.

The Seven Years' War cost England very dearly (90 million pounds sterling), the national debt by the end of the war reached 130 million. Considering that a significant part of these expenses was associated with the conquest of French territories in North America and thereby increased the territory of the English colonies, the English Parliament issues a law in October 1763 banning resettlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, to lands west of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. This law could replenish the English treasury both through the profitable fur trade with the Indians, and prevent the involvement of the Iroquois in the uprising of the Ottawa and Mohawk Indians under the leadership of Pontiac, caused largely by the massive seizure of their lands by the colonists. In addition, this law made it possible to prevent a reduction in mining production due to the mass exodus of colonists from the coast to the Indian lands of former French possessions.

In 1764, the English Parliament passed the “Sugar Bill,” a law raising duties on the import of sugar and molasses from the French and Spanish colonies in the West Indies into the North American colonies, and introducing these duties on the import of sugar from the English islands of the West Indies! Before this, the colonies were regarded as part of the English economic system and therefore all the benefits enjoyed by the trade of these goods in England itself were applied to raw materials and food obtained from the colonies. The introduction and increase of duties was explained by the need to obtain funds “to cover the expenses necessary for the protection and provision of colonies and plantations in America.”

After the end of the Seven Years' War, the English Parliament began to look for ways to reduce military spending while maintaining sufficient armed forces. It was decided to shift part of the financial burden onto the colonists. In 1765, the government stationed 10 thousand soldiers in North America (7.5 thousand on the continent, 2.5 thousand on the islands in the West Indies). To ensure at least 1/3 of the costs of maintaining these troops, in the same 1765 the Stamp Duty Act was adopted. This law established a tax on all documents of a legal nature: purchase and sale, inheritance, marriage, donation, etc. In addition, this law established a tax on newspapers, books and playing cards. The need for this Act was explained by the need to maintain troops, again in the interests of the colonists: to protect against attacks by Indians and a possible resumption of the war by France or another power.

These measures of the English parliament and the government of George III were perceived in the colonies as a violation of their legal rights. The point is that

1. According to the royal charters of James I, issued at the establishment of the first colonies, the colonists and their descendants remain English, and enjoy all the privileges and protection of the laws in the same way as if they had remained in their native land in England.

2. The colonists referred to the slogans of the English parliament itself during the struggle against Charles I’s attempts to introduce new laws without parliamentary approval: “no taxes without representation.”

3. In addition, although there were no representatives of the colonists in the English Parliament, they did not pay national taxes, except for those that they themselves introduced for local needs in their assemblies.

In October 1765, representatives of the assemblies of 9 out of 13 colonies met in Congress in New York and sent a petition to George III complaining about the violation of their rights. England did not realize the seriousness of the events in the colonies and rejected their demands. Simultaneously with sending the petition of “rights and complaints,” entrepreneurs from among the deputies (and there were many of them) persuaded Congress to decide on a boycott of English goods as a measure of influence on England. The decision to boycott caused outrage in the government and parliament of England. Even W. Pitt, who had previously not approved of too harsh measures against the colonists, declared that he himself would go at the head of those who, by force of arms, would expel the Americans from the workshops in which they would produce everything they needed for themselves. One of the English newspapers wrote: “Colonies are acquired for the sole purpose of our benefits. Therefore, it is simply impossible to imagine a situation where we would take into account the interests of the colonies to the detriment of our own.” In response, Sons of Liberty organizations began to emerge in the colonies, whose main task was to obstruct the implementation of the stamp duty law. Members of these organizations organized rallies and processions, during which they destroyed customs buildings, broke into the houses of tax collectors and forced them to abandon their positions. On the eve of the official introduction of the expiration of the Stamp Act (November 1, 1765), a funeral ceremony for “colonial freedom” was held in Boston (Massachusetts Colony); at the end of the ceremony, “freedom” symbolically stood up from the hearse amid the general rejoicing of those gathered. “Liberty or death” - this slogan, first heard in Patrick Henry's speech at the Virginia Assembly, became the most popular.

In the English Parliament, the most far-sighted politicians warned, "we are making war on our own trade." And indeed, during several months of the boycott, the loss of English trade amounted to about 700 thousand pounds sterling. Under the influence of losses and in view of the boycott, which could lead to the establishment of its own production, as well as the mass movement in the colonies, the English Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. But at the same time, Parliament also adopted the Act of Supremacy, according to which the right of England was confirmed to issue laws binding on the inhabitants of the colonies.

In the colonies, the repeal of the Stamp Act, despite the passage of a second act, was hailed as a definite victory. To celebrate, New Yorkers built a large statue of George III out of lead.

Taking advantage of the end of the boycott of goods, the English government sent additional troops to the colonies, and then, in 1767, on the initiative of Minister Townshend, on the basis of the Act of Supremacy, introduced new indirect taxes on consumer goods: tea, paper, glass, paints. These laws caused a new rise in anti-British sentiment. At the call of the residents of Boston, a boycott of English goods was again announced. One of the forms of struggle against indirect taxes was smuggling. In June 1768, smugglers forcibly prevented a Boston port customs officer from inspecting one of the ships, and then openly transported the entire cargo ashore. Residents of Boston, in support of the smugglers, destroyed the customs building. When the investigation began, it was not possible to bring to trial a single participant in the illegal actions: the residents of Boston refused to extradite them. The English authorities strengthened the security of the restored customs house, and when in March 1770 the events with the inspection were repeated, an armed clash occurred, during which English soldiers, defending themselves, killed and wounded several people. This event became known as the Boston Massacre.

News of events in the colonies sparked new debates in the English Parliament, and as a result, the prevailing opinion was that it was necessary to find a compromise with the colonists. In 1771, Parliament repealed the law that introduced increased indirect taxes on consumer goods: tea, paper, glass, paints. However, contrary to expectation, these measures did not produce the same result as the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. Anti-English sentiments did not subside, but, on the contrary, increased, since these parliamentary measures were regarded as a victory won by struggle!

Wanting to free governors from financial dependence on colonial assemblies, in 1772 the British government announced that from now on, payments to governors, judges and other officials would be made from the royal treasury. But this measure also led to the opposite result: the power of the governors practically ceased to exist, since the colonial assemblies, seeing that the governors were no longer dependent on them, began to form their own authorities. The first such body, led by Samuel Adams, was formed in Boston and called the Committee of Correspondence (since one of the main initial tasks was to communicate and coordinate actions with other colonies). In the spring of 1773, similar committees were created in Virginia, and then in other colonies.

Trying to regain control over the situation in the colonies, the British government decided to resort to economic measures and, thereby, attract the sympathy of the population. In 1773, the “tea law” was issued, which abolished the duty on imported tea. However, this belated measure was not successful. Although, of course, the smugglers were economically interested in its disruption, and therefore played the main role. In December 1773, an East India Campaign ship that arrived in the Boston port with a cargo of such “duty-free” and therefore cheap tea was captured by smugglers disguised as Indians, and the entire cargo of tea was thrown overboard. This episode was known in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”

Repeated facts of open disobedience, despite the attempts of the English Parliament to find a compromise, led to the fact that supporters of repressive policies towards the colonies gained a numerical superiority in Parliament. In March 1774, five Repressive Acts were passed. According to these laws, the port of Boston was closed, which threatened its population with starvation, the royal governor of Massachusetts received emergency powers, which meant the liquidation of the charter for self-government of this colony, trial by jury in the colonies was abolished, instead the accused had to be sent to trial in England, city meetings were prohibited , which was regarded as a violation of freedom of speech. Finally, it was announced that the governor had the right to billet soldiers in the houses of the colonists. These laws caused not only indignation in the other colonies, but also solidarity: Bostonians began to receive material and food assistance.

The growth of indignation was also facilitated by the Quebec Act, issued at the same time, according to which all lands lying beyond the Appalachian Mountains (where it was forbidden to settle under the law of 1763) went to the colony of Canada. This act was intended to prevent Canada from being drawn into anti-English sentiment, which was very likely, given the considerable percentage of the French-speaking population of this newly conquered colony. At the same time, this act created a split between the Canadians and the English colonists, who were counting on the development of these lands! This law led to the fact that anti-English sentiments now gripped not only the townspeople, but also most of the colonist farmers and, most importantly, the previously loyal southern planters who also dreamed of developing part of these lands. It is no coincidence that these five laws and the Quebec Act were called “intolerable acts” in the colonies.

In September 1774, the First Continental Congress met in Philadelphia (Colony of Pennsylvania), which was not attended by representatives of all colonies: the British authorities were able to prevent the arrival of representatives of the Georgia colony. In an effort to include Canada, the assembled delegates called the congress “continental,” but Canadian representatives did not attend either this or the subsequent Second Congress.

Some of the Congress delegates were supporters of a peaceful resolution of the conflict in Boston by compensating the losses of the East India Company; moreover, they believed that, despite all the infringements of their rights, being part of the British Empire was more beneficial from the point of view of security and economic ties. Therefore, they considered it necessary to seek from England only more acceptable conditions: the transfer of taxation rights to the colonies and guarantees of self-government. Congress adopted the Declaration of Rights, which condemned the actions of the British government and proclaimed the rights of the colonists to “life, liberty and property.”

However, under the influence of the speeches of S. Adams and P. Henry, the last decisions of the First Congress turned out to be more radical: a resolution was adopted to boycott British goods and begin military preparations. But the most important for the further development of events was the decision to transfer control over the organization of the boycott from associations to elected people's committees, more often called “Security Committees.” As a result of the activities of the “Security Committees,” the volume of trade with England decreased 10 times, weapons were stockpiled in secret warehouses, and the organization of detachments began, whose members called themselves “men of the minute.”

In response to these actions of the colonists, additional military forces were sent from England to the colonies.

War of Independence 1775-1783

The war began spontaneously, when neither the English command nor the colonists had a firm intention to wage war, or a clear plan for waging war. The “men of the minute” of one of the Boston detachments, who observed the actions of the British troops, learned about the impending arrest of the leaders of the Boston Security Committee and the intention to seize weapons depots of Bostonians located in the Boston suburbs of Lensington and Concord. Members of the Committee of Safety S. Adams and J. Hancock managed to escape, the weapons were removed from the warehouses before the British soldiers reached Lensington on the morning of April 19, 1775. The English detachment was fired upon by armed farmers, and, having lost a third of the soldiers, returned to Boston with difficulty.

On May 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress met. Members of Congress were forced to admit that the war with England had begun, and on June 15 they decided to organize an army of colonists. The formation of the army was entrusted to the Virginia planter George Washington (1732-1799), given his military experience in the Seven Years' War and the considerable fortune that he promised to use for the needs of organizing the army. In addition, this appointment was supposed to attract the rest of the planters of the southern states to the war for independence. While Washington's regular army was being formed, detachments of the "men of the minute" and the colonial militia, which had gone over to the side of the colonists, surrounded Boston with the British army stationed there, led by General Gage. The first major battle took place on June 17, when the British tried three times to oust the colonists from the hill they had captured - Bankers Hill, which dominated Boston and from where they fired on the city. Eventually, the colonists abandoned the hill, but British casualties were enormous, amounting to about a thousand men. “One more such victory, and no one will be left to bring the news home,” was how this battle was assessed in English newspapers. However, even after the loss of Bankers Hill, the siege of Boston continued.

In July 1775, some of the deputies of the Second Congress attempted reconciliation by sending an “olive branch” petition to England. The government of George III responded with orders to suppress the "rebellion". In the summer of 1775, detachments of colonists (“Green Mountain Boys”) under the leadership of Ethan Allen began advancing into Canada and captured Ticonderoga and a number of other fortresses on Lake Champlain, then took Montreal and besieged Quebec. However, contrary to the expectations of the colonists, the population of Canada did not join the colonists, and after the arrival of reinforcements from England, the siege of Quebec had to be stopped and a retreat from Canada began. By this time, the British command had also decided on a plan for suppressing the “rebellion”: seizing ports on the Atlantic coast with the aim of blockading the colonies. In January 1776, the British fleet burned Portland (then called Folmouth) and devastated the shores of Virginia. Despite this, the siege of Boston ended in March 1776: the English garrison surrendered the city and significant supplies of weapons on the terms of the garrison's withdrawal. Along with the British, many residents who remained loyal to England (about 1,100 people) also left.

At the end of August 1776, having received reinforcements, the British command suddenly landed troops near New York and surrounded the colonial army created by Washington near Long Island. With heavy losses, Washington managed to withdraw the army from encirclement, leaving New York in the hands of the British. Retreating to Pennsylvania, Washington's army in December 1776 again suffered a serious defeat on the river. Delaware near the city of Trenton, in addition, another army of colonists under the command of Charles Lee was surrounded by the British and capitulated.

The coming winter of 1776/77 was a difficult time for Washington's army: defeats and shortages of uniforms and shoes, illness: all this led to a loss of morale and a reduction in numbers (from 34 thousand to 4). Realizing that it was necessary to restore faith in victory, and using the reinforcements received from among Pennsylvania farmers, on Christmas night 1776, Washington's army launched a surprise attack on the British camp at Trenton. About 1 thousand British soldiers were captured. Building on this success, in January 1777, Washington inflicted another defeat on the British at the Battle of Princeton. However, the superiority of forces was still on the side of England, and these victories so far only meant the extension of the existence of Washington’s army.

In the spring of 1777, the British command developed a new, clearer plan for waging war: to isolate the northern colonies from the southern ones and suppress the uprising in the north, in those colonies that were called “New England” (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island). The British were convinced that following the restoration of English power in this hotbed of uprising, the remaining colonies would lay down their arms.

Carrying out the first part of the plan, British troops under the command of Howe (Howe) approached Philadelphia in the summer of 1777, Congress members hastily left the city, moved Congress meetings to Baltimore (Maryland colony) and British troops occupied Philadelphia for a long time.

The British command attached special importance to the implementation of the second part of the plan: the suppression of the uprising in New England. To carry it out, an attack on the river valley had to begin in the fall of 1777. Hudson (New York) connecting “New England” with Canada with the forces of three groups of British troops: Burgoyne’s army from Canada (Montreal), the army of Saint Leger from Lake. Ontario (his troops included many Tory colonists who remained loyal to England and Indians) and the army under the command of Clinton from New York. The plans of the English command were thwarted: the population of coastal villages along the river. Hudson, over the course of 6 weeks, forged a huge chain with which they blocked the river and thereby stopped the movement of Clinton’s army, which was moving on ships. General Burgoyne, occupying individual villages along the way, was forced to leave garrisons there, which significantly weakened his forces (from 7 to 5 thousand). In addition, local guides deliberately forced the British to wander through the forests. As a result, hungry and weakened from disease, Burgoyne's troops were surrounded near the city of Saratoga on October 19, 1777 and, after short resistance, surrendered to the army of colonists under the command of Gates. Having received news of this, desertion began in Saint-Léger's troops, the Tory colonists fled, and the Indians took up arms against the British. The approaching army of Gates accepted the surrender of this group, allowing those who wished to return to England, provided that they would no longer fight against the colonists.

Despite the colonists' victory at Saratoga, the preponderance of forces was still on the side of England, British troops still occupied Philadelphia, and the British fleet was in the Chesapeake Bay, controlling the coast of Maryland and blockading Baltimore, where meetings of Congress were held. And yet, this event played a decisive role in the course of the war: 1. the colonists believed in the possibility of victory, 2. the success of the colonists accelerated the entry into this war of France, and later Spain and Holland. The war against the colonies turned into a war against a coalition of powers.

Winter months 1777/78 The army of colonists again experienced hunger and even a lack of shoes. It was especially difficult for those who were the victors at Saratoga and the battles at Lake Ontario. In contrast, the British army was constantly replenished, both by reinforcements from Germany, from Hanover and Brunswick (in exchange for a considerable sum they were given 29 thousand soldiers), and by Tory colonists and Indians, who saw in the colonists those who had been seized their lands, in contrast to the King of England, who forbade this (according to the law of 1763).

During these same winter months, unofficial representatives of the American Congress who were in Paris, among whom the most famous was the scientist and politician Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), negotiated with the new French Foreign Minister Vergennes, convincing him that France needed to enter into war on the side of the colonists and regain what was lost during the Seven Years' War. Despite the fact that the new king of France, Louis XVI, at the very beginning of the uprising in May 1776, gave a loan of 1 million from his personal funds. livres to help the colonists and allowed the construction of ships for the colonists at French shipyards, all this was done only to weaken England; neither he nor his government believed in the success of the uprising. However, when news of the outcome of the battle of Saratoga was received in Paris on December 4, 1777, this made it possible to cast aside hesitations and doubts. In addition, by this time Robert Turgot, although for a short time as Comptroller General (Minister) of Finance (1774-76), managed to strengthen the French fleet. On December 6, Vergennes informed Franklin that he was ready to conclude a trade and alliance treaty. Two months later, on February 6, 1778, the treaty was agreed upon and signed: France recognized the independence of the American colonies, both sides pledged not to lay down their arms until England recognized this independence. France renounced its claims to Canada and Louisiana, and the United States in return pledged to support France's claims to the English colonies in the West Indies.

Entry of France, Spain and Holland into the War of Independence.

Having learned about these negotiations, the British government turned to the American Congress with a proposal to abandon the “unnatural foreign alliance”, restore the alliance with the “motherland”, stop hostilities, promising amnesty to the rebels and the repeal of all laws of parliament directed against the colonies since 1763.

Congress rejected these proposals and demanded recognition of independence as a condition for ending hostilities. The war resumed. In April 1778, a strong French squadron headed for the American shores, but the British command managed to concentrate the previously scattered forces towards New York. Having missed the moment to attack the separated forces of the British, the French admiral did not dare to attack and headed to the West Indies. In the West Indies, the French acted more decisively and over the next 4 years captured all English possessions except Jamaica and two small islands: Barbados and Antigua.

After France entered the war, the British command decided to change the previous plan for waging war with the colonies. Instead of concentrating all efforts on defeating the rebellion in “New England,” it was now decided to shift the main blow to the southern colonies, hoping that the resistance here would be weaker than in the north. In addition, the British placed special hopes on the support of black slaves. The fact is, at the beginning of the War of Independence, Congress prohibited the recruitment of black slaves into the army of colonists. In turn, the English governor of Virginia, Lord Dunmore, back in 1775 promised freedom to black slaves if they went over to the side of the British. As a result, during the war, 1/5 of the black population of the colonies (about 100 thousand) defected to the British side. As a result, planters in the southern colonies used local militia not so much against English troops as to combat slave revolts. The belated decision of Congress in 1779 to undertake the ransom of 3 thousand slaves and oblige the authorities of the southern states to mobilize them into the army of the colonists met fierce resistance from the planters: they were afraid to give weapons to the slaves.

Using these circumstances, British troops landed in Georgia at the end of 1778, captured Savannah, and then, in May 1780, encircling and forcing the surrender of a 7,000-strong army of colonists, they took Charleston, the capital of South Carolina. As a result, Georgia, South and North Carolina fell into the hands of the British. Success accompanied British troops in 1778 in the west, between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi. Here, Indian tribes sided with the British, remembering England’s 1763 ban on colonists seizing and settling in this territory. True, in 1779, detachments of squatter farmers, led by Rogers Clark, were able to defeat British troops in the Ohio River Valley and push the Indians beyond the Mississippi.

The turning point in the fighting in the South came after 1780, when Congress sent General Nathaniel Greene to the South with a small detachment of regular colonial troops. Strengthening his group with partisan detachments of farmers, and combining guerrilla warfare tactics with deliberate surprise attacks by regular troops, Greene inflicted a series of defeats on the British General Cornwallis and liberated South and North Carolina and Georgia in early 1781.

The decisive battles of 1781 were to take place on the territory of Virginia, where two armies of colonists were brought up: one under the command of the Frenchman Marquis Lafayette, the other under the command of General Wayne.

Meanwhile, Spain entered the war against England in 1779, which, although it feared the spread of the liberation movement to its own colonies, and therefore did not recognize the United States, could not resist the temptation to return Gibraltar and expand its possessions in North America. Spain intended to receive as a reward for the fight against England from the United States lands from the Mississippi east to the Appalachian and Allegheny mountains (the territory from the Mississippi and further west to the Pacific Ocean at that time belonged to Spain). In 1780, Holland also entered the war. Its fleet supplied the colonists with weapons and tried to take over the English colonies in India. In addition, on the initiative of Russia, the Northern European states: Sweden, Denmark and Russia created the League of Armed Neutrality to carry out free trade across the seas, contrary to England’s attempts to control shipping. League members declared that they would give armed resistance to any attempt to interfere with trade. Türkiye, Portugal and some German states soon joined the League. Thus, during the war for the independence of the North American colonies, a coalition of European powers arose against England again, as during the Seven Years' War. However, now the forces of the coalition and the League led to the loss of English supremacy at sea, which created a threat to its own security.

In July 1779, the combined Franco-Spanish fleet headed for the shores of England, intending to land troops. At this moment, England's ground forces in the British Isles were insignificant, about 39 thousand militia (militia), the fleet was also inferior in number to the Franco-Spanish one. Fortunately for the British, disagreements between the French and Spanish commanders and a strong storm prevented the landing, and the squadron left the coast of England.

After defeats and retreat from South and North Carolina in the fall of 1781, Cornwallis's army settled in Virginia, on a small peninsula near Yorktown. Having learned about this, Washington, who was preparing at that time to take New York, postponed the assault and hastened to unite with the group of Lafayette and Wayne. Washington intended to cut off the English army from supplies from land, hoping that Cornwallis would be cut off from the sea as the French squadron of de Grasse was supposed to approach Chesapeake Bay. Indeed, on October 1, 1781, Cornwallis's army was surrounded near Yorktown by 3 times superior forces. After a short resistance, Cornwallis had to capitulate on October 19.

After the defeat at Yorktown, England suspended active operations in America and concentrated all its forces against France and Spain. Spain by this time was able to capture (regain) Florida. The main military operations took place in the West Indies and the Mediterranean Sea.

In April 1782, the English squadron managed to defeat the French in the All Saints Channel between the islands of Guadeloupe and Dominica, but due to heavy losses they were unable to build on their success. In Europe, Spanish troops captured the island of Minorca in 1782, but they failed to capture Gibraltar, although they besieged it for two years.

The defeat at Yorktown and the lack of impressive successes in the war with France and Spain in America, Europe and India sharply changed the mood in the English Parliament. A resolution of the House of Commons passed in February 1782 read: “The House considers that further offensive military action against America, under these circumstances, will tend to weaken the efforts of the country against its European enemies and will tend to increase mutual hostility, so fatal to the interests of both Great Britain and America." The change in sentiment in Parliament brought the “new Tories” to power, led by Pitt the Younger, who proposed to begin peace negotiations. A preliminary (preliminary) agreement between England and the USA was concluded in November 1782, according to which England recognized the independence of its former colonies. A preliminary peace was concluded with France and Spain at the beginning of 1783. The final peace could be signed only after the settlement of all territorial problems and claims of Spain, France and the United States itself. Fearing the possible satisfaction of Spain's claims to the lands to the West from the Allegheny Mountains to the Mississippi and the return of Canada to France, the American delegation suggested that the British negotiate separately. The terms of the peace treaty with the United States were discussed secretly from France and Spain.

As a result, on September 3, 1783, in Versailles, in an agreement with the United States, England recognized the independence and sovereignty of the new state and pledged to withdraw all its troops from US territory. The Great Lakes were recognized as the border between British and US possessions. The lands claimed by Spain and France, from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi, were transferred to the United States in exchange for payment of all pre-war debts and compensation for the confiscated properties of supporters of England (Tories). France had to be content with restoring the pre-war (i.e. before the uprising of the colonists) borders, with the exception of such acquisitions as the island of Tobago in America, Senegal and the slave trade center of Gorée in Africa. Spain retained Florida and the island of Menorca. Holland was given back its former possessions in India and the West Indies.

USA education. Features of government.

The emergence of the United States as a state occurred during the War of Independence. Back in May 1776, the Second Continental Congress decided to transform the colonies into independent states (states). The need to unite efforts in the fight against England required the creation of a single state. On July 4, 1776, the Second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence drawn up by T. Jefferson. The main ideas of the Declaration boiled down to the proclamation of political equality, equality before the law, recognition of the “natural rights” of every person, condemnation of slavery (at the request of the southern planters, it was deleted from the document). In July 1776, Congress discussed the draft of the first constitution, called the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, based on the ideas of the Declaration. In November 1777, the first constitution was adopted and was to take effect upon the approval of all the states. Came into force in March 1781. According to this constitution, the states were sovereign states, the general Congress, consisting of one chamber and elected for one year on the principle of an equal number of deputies from each state, was responsible for the publication of general laws, subject to their approval by 9 states from 13. Each state was a sovereign state with the right to have its own currency, to pass laws of both a political and economic nature, for which each state must have its own state congresses, also elected for one year, according to electoral laws determined by each state (as the presence and size of the property qualification). Most states also provided for the post of governor, elected for one year. The correspondence committees that arose during the War of Independence were transformed into security committees designed to monitor the activities of hostile elements. During the war, security committees compiled “black lists” of those suspected of treason and complicity with England. Discussion of the lists took place at rallies, and the suspects were sent out of the country with confiscation of property, and if treason was obvious or proven, they were executed.

At the end of the War of Independence, in 1777-83. The US economic situation was critical. The general Congress did not have the funds at its disposal to pay off debts to European countries that helped the colonists, trade and production froze due to both the war and the shortage of workers and the low purchasing power of the population. The only means of covering the necessary expenses was the issuance of paper money, not backed by either goods or gold. Financial confusion and inevitable inflation were aggravated by the fact that money was issued both by Congress and by individual states. In some states where the influence of democratic elements was strongest (Massachusetts), attempts were made to introduce maximum prices for essential goods, these attempts were unsuccessful due to the opposition of the merchants, who refused to trade according to these rules and demanded hard currency (gold or foreign money). Congress, in need of weapons and revitalization of production, at the end of the war was forced to provide financial assistance to the owners of US factories and merchants. In 1781, the North American Bank was organized to pursue these goals and lending opportunities. However, a considerable part of the money was invested by entrepreneurs in buying up land certificates issued to soldiers and officers, and in buying up confiscated properties of Tory loyalists.

After the conclusion of peace in 1783, England sent a huge amount of goods accumulated during the war to the US market. Since the purchasing power of Americans was very low, England offered these goods on long-term credit terms and at low prices. In addition, this made it possible to hope for the preservation, if not political, then economic dependence of the United States on England. At the same time, England banned trade between its colonies in the West Indies and the United States. This measure led to a fall in prices for agricultural goods, which were the only ones American farmers and planters could export.

After the end of the war, each US state tried to restore the economy, restore the destroyed economy, and for this purpose began to levy increased taxes. All these features of economic processes have led to the fact that the main burden of the tax burden and inflation fell on the shoulders of farmers and hired workers.

However, the army showed its first dissatisfaction. In June 1783, troops stationed in Lancaster marched on Philadelphia to force Congress to pay long-unpaid salaries. Congress decided to disband the army. This led to the first attempts to establish a monarchy in the United States. Some officers offered the crown to the Prussian Prince Henry, others to Washington himself. The unrest was stopped thanks to the promise of the authoritative Washington, but he still refused the crown.

In 1786, most state legislatures in New England (New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania) and even North and South Carolina and Georgia, under pressure from artisans, farmers and the poor, passed laws on additional issue of paper money , the possibility of paying off accumulated debts with paper money (refusal to accept them as debt was considered illegal), the release of debtors for both taxes and personal obligations from prison. However, in Massachusetts and New Hampshire, since the representatives of the big bourgeoisie won the elections, laws were passed that were exactly the opposite: on the collection of debts in hard currency.

In the autumn of 1786, the accumulated irritation of artisans, farmers and the poor resulted in an uprising. They began to seize courthouses to prevent the consideration of debt collection cases and to destroy decisions that had already been made to sell property and farm plots for debts. At the same time, debtors were released from debtor prisons, as were the rest of those arrested. During these protests, the rebels demanded an “agrarian law”, believing that “the property of the United States was protected from Britain by the united efforts of everyone, it should therefore become the common property...”. The local militia of the states of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, where the rebels captured a number of cities and carried out these decisions as “decisions of the people,” sympathized with these ideas and did not take decisive action to suppress the uprising. It came to the point of discussing in the meetings of these cities projects for limiting large land and other property. The movement was led by Captain Daniel Shays, an active participant in the War of Independence. When planning a campaign against the state capital of Boston, Shays appointed a meeting place for all rebel troops in one of the towns where the War of Independence began - Concord. Despite the significant number of people gathered (15 thousand), these detachments were defeated by Lincoln's even larger army and driven out of Massachusetts. The rebels, who were predominantly farmers, did not receive support in the cities of New England and after several more unsuccessful battles the uprising was suppressed.

In the spring of 1787, a constitutional convention was convened in Philadelphia. Under the current constitution, state representatives could make only individual amendments to its text. However, those gathered, taking into account Shays's recent uprising, lacking authority, nevertheless decided to adopt a new constitution. That is why, secretly from the public, they discussed the draft of a new constitution for 4 months.

The proposals were different, from the introduction of a constitutional monarchy on the model of England (Hamilton), to a democratic republic with universal suffrage and the abolition of slavery (Franklin). According to the new constitution, the United States was transformed from a confederation into a federation, the post of president was introduced with powers exceeding those of the English king: commander-in-chief of the army and navy, the right to appoint (though with subsequent confirmation by the Senate) lifelong members of the Supreme Court, ministers and ambassadors, the right to veto decisions of Congress. Congress from a unicameral state was transformed into a bicameral one: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives and the Senate were formed on the basis of elections, but the number of deputies from each state was determined by the number of residents, and in the southern states, black slaves were also included in this number (but not as voters). The House of Representatives (states) had the right to propose laws, set taxes and duties, approve the budget, all this became law with the subsequent approval of the Senate, and the Senate had the right to confirm public positions and judge senior government officials. The Supreme Court was given the power to decide whether new laws were consistent with the constitution and to overturn them if they did not. The individual state legislatures were to make their own election laws in each state and to impose local taxes and laws relating to local needs, education, slavery and family relations.

The new constitution of 1787 was subject to ratification (approval) by state legislative assemblies (conventions). In this regard, the social struggle in the country intensified again: the democratic part of the population (farmers, artisans, hired workers) spoke out against the provisions of this “monarchical” constitution and were called “anti-federalists”, supporters of the constitution - “federalists”. The severity of the struggle between federalists and anti-federalists is evidenced both by the fact that in most state conventions it was adopted by a small majority of votes (Virginia 89 to 79, New York 30 to 27, etc.), and by the fact that this constitution was finally adopted only in 1789, with 10 amendments later called the Bill of Rights. According to this Bill, freedom of speech, press, assembly, personality, petitions, bearing arms, trial by jury, renunciation of a standing army, separation of church and state (freedom of conscience), and guarantees of state sovereignty were introduced into the constitution. The Constitution provided for the possibility of expanding the territory of the United States by adding new states to it, subject to reaching a population of 60 thousand people.

The War of Independence and the peculiarities of the struggle for the adoption of the Second Constitution stimulated the development of the internal market (since all internal customs duties and separate state currencies, feudal rents were abolished), gave impetus to the development of entrepreneurship, trade and the colonization of Western territories. The Second Constitution and especially the Bill of Rights had enormous international significance, becoming an example to be followed in European countries.

The main prerequisite for the break of the thirteen North American colonies with England was the development of capitalism in them. The immediate cause that caused the mass movement against the metropolis in the 60s. XVIII century, and then the revolutionary war against it in 1775, was the policy of increased pressure and oppression that England began to implement in the colonies after the Seven Years' War.

In search of additional sources to cover the budget deficit resulting from the Seven Years' War, the British government introduced direct and indirect taxation of the population of the American colonies. Having encountered stubborn opposition, it decided to ensure the obedience of the colonies with the help of armed force. The policies of the metropolis infringed on the interests of not just one class in the colonies, but of all classes. Actions by the British authorities, such as the stationing of troops in the colonies and the Stamp Act, caused a mass protest movement that grew at an increasing pace from 1765.

On March 5, 1770, the first bloody clash between Americans and British troops took place on the streets of Boston: six workers were killed and the same number were wounded. A special public body formed in Boston, called the Committee of Correspondence, seized actual power in this city and appealed to other colonies to follow its example.

In the spring of 1773, similar committees were created in Virginia and other colonies. Winter 1774–1775 Armed detachments began to spontaneously arise in the colonies. In the first battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, British troops were faced with scattered formation tactics. The partisans shot accurately from behind trees and buildings, while remaining invulnerable; During the fighting, the British lost a third of their soldiers. These events served as a signal for the widespread seizure of weapons by the people. Thus began the rebellion against England.

On May 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress met, which stated the state of war with England and on June 15 decided to organize the army. It was headed by George Washington, a wealthy Virginia planter.

In the main seat of the uprising, Massachusetts, rebel troops immediately surrounded Boston, the stronghold of the English troops, and kept it under siege for almost a year, until the English soldiers were removed from there by sea. The regular American army was recruited from volunteers who joined it for a certain, often short, period. Washington's army was reduced each winter and replenished with new recruits in the summer. Despite these difficulties, she generally fought successfully against the trained English regulars. American soldiers realized that they were defending their native land, felt the active help of the population, especially partisan detachments, and themselves used guerrilla tactics. During the first war year, a number of colonies declared themselves independent states (states).

During the war, the unity of the colonies was forged and the American nation was born. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. This day became an American national holiday. But the war continued until October 19, 1781, when Cornwallis's English army capitulated. France, as well as Spain and Holland, provided great military assistance to the Americans in the War of Independence. Russia expressed support for the war of the American colonies for independence by sending two squadrons of warships to the shores of America (USA).

The American Revolutionary War began on April 19, 1775, with skirmishes in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts, and ended on June 28, 1783, when the British army stopped attacking the French who were helping the rebels in southern India. Vietnam aside, it was by far the longest war in the history of the United States. Leading world powers took part in it, some as belligerents, some as observers. In one way or another, the war affected all parts of former British America, including not only the thirteen colonies of the east coast, but also Canada, the West Indies and the Atlantic. She put an end to one empire and gave birth to another.

Economy

The economic situation on the continent at this time was in a deplorable state. In 1765, the English Parliament approved the Stamp Act. This meant that citizens were required to pay tax on every transaction. At the same time, the Sons of Liberty organization appeared in Massachusetts, whose members advocated an end to English tyranny. The organization very quickly acquired associates. The discontent of the population was so vehement and put such pressure on the government that the Act was repealed a year after its adoption.

At the same time, a decree was issued according to which 10 thousand soldiers and officers of the British army were stationed in America. The Americans living there had to provide the military with everything they needed - from housing and food to furniture. In 1765, all trade affairs came under the authority of the British, and the colonial governors who had previously dealt with them lost their powers.

After an extremely debilitating period, England, in addition to the expansion of its colonies, acquired debts. To stabilize the financial situation, the British government arbitrarily increased taxes for the American population, without waiting for negotiations with local governors.

Restriction of freedom

The power of the British in America was practically unlimited - searches of homes, inspection of personal documents, and strict censorship became common practice in the administrative environment. The population desperately tried to resist, threatening otherwise with non-payment of taxes, but in vain.

Industry

England's goal was to exploit the continent without developing it. A resource-rich country could become a serious competitor to small and rainy Albion, so the English authorities completely seized control of the resources, forcing planters to sell goods at negligible prices and purchase at exorbitantly high prices. It was also prohibited to organize metal processing production and enter into commercial relations with any countries other than England itself.

First bloodshed

March 1770 was remembered for sad events - English soldiers, without warning, began shelling the strikers and wounded and killed dozens of people. At the cost of these lives, the Americans convinced the government of the need to abolish all newly introduced duties. All that remained was the tax on tea, preserved as confirmation of the monopoly. In 1772, the Sons of Liberty created Committees of Correspondence, which were designed to ensure that the boycott of British goods did not end in the country, coordinate the work of the rebels and communicate between members of the organization.

Boston Tea Party

The authorities believed that with the abolition of most duties, sales would increase and the population's discontent would subside, but it was too late, the mechanism of the revolution had been launched. In December 1773, three ships loaded with tea entered the port of Boston - England had the right to trade it in America without duties. Members of the Sons of Liberty snuck onto the ships and threw a fortune's worth of tea off the ships into the sea. Soon after this, the English government nevertheless decided to adopt all the laws against which the Americans were so on strike, and also enlisted the support of Canada, whose territory was significantly increased due to the lands assigned in its favor, which were claimed by other colonists in order to increase the area under cultivation. The revolution in America (like the vast majority of revolutions) was led by the working class - artisans, who make up the lion's share of the population.

Progress of the war

On July 11, 1776, a number of provinces, whose Congress was dominated by conservatives, signed the Declaration of Independence, thereby depriving their deputies of making any decisions on behalf of the provinces. The workers rejoiced.

In 1776, the British left Boston, securing New York, which they would hold until the end of the war.

In 1777, the army of patriots attempted to reach Canada, but was unsuccessful. Fighting at Saratoga, the patriots were still able to win a victory, which turned their luck away from the British - France entered the war on the side of the Americans.

On November 15, 1777, the Articles of Confederation, the “embryo” of the American Constitution, were adopted. The Articles came into force in all states on March 1, 1781. At the same time, the Continental Congress was disbanded, creating the Confederation Congress, headed by Samuel Adams.

Towards the end of the war, the British tried to regain the lost initiative by moving the main military operations to the southern lands, but there were fewer and fewer supporters of their methods and policies.

In 1781, at the siege of Yorktown, the Second British Army capitulated under the pressure of American-French troops. In fact, the defeat in this battle was the defeat of the entire war.

Treaty of Paris

Peace negotiations began in the spring of 1782. It turned out that France was fighting exclusively for the American idea of being independent, while they themselves had ambitions in the territory near the Appalachians. Secretly from the French, they began to negotiate peace with the British.

William Petit, who served as Prime Minister of Britain, made concessions, giving the Americans all the land up to the Mississippi River and the opportunity to trade in England. English traders, in turn, were allowed to return the property left in the United States.

On September 3, 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed, officially recognizing America as an independent state, as well as provisions clarifying the border between the United States and Canada.

Results and significance of the War of Independence

The War of Independence of the North American Colonies was the first armed conflict to end in the formation of a viable sovereign state. The results of the national liberation war for the former colony were:

elimination of colonial dependence on England;
the creation of an independent bourgeois state with a republican form of government;
destruction of feudal tendencies (majority, primogeniture) in agriculture;
nationalization of the lands of the English crown and English lords;
formation of private ownership of land;
creating conditions for the development of domestic industry and trade.

The American War of Independence played the role of a bourgeois revolution. In the course of it, obstacles to the formation of capitalist relations were destroyed. But it remained unfinished. Slavery and the slave trade continued in the country. In the northern states, measures were taken to gradually destroy them; in the southern states, it survived until the mid-19th century. The incompleteness of the transformations led to a new revolutionary shock - civil war.

Adoption of the constitution

After the signing of a peace treaty with Great Britain and its recognition of the independence of the United States, the conflict between the states began to grow in the confederation. To prevent war, the Constituent Convention met in 1787. The deputies developed a common US Constitution for all states and approved it on September 17, 1787. It consisted of a preamble and seven articles. It was supposed to be valid after ratification by nine of the thirteen states. Thus, the provisions of the constitution came into force on March 4, 1789.

The fundamental principles of the US Constitution are three provisions:

separation of powers;
republican form of government;
federal structure.

Structure of government

Note 1

According to the Constitution, the highest legislative body of the state is the US Congress. It consists of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Each state elected two representatives to the Senate for a six-year term. The composition of the Senate was renewed every two years by about a third of its composition. Every citizen for whom voters cast a majority of votes could become members of the lower house of representatives. One deputy was elected from 30 thousand voters. The term of office of the elected candidate is two years.

Basic powers of Congress:

adoption of laws;
introduction of new taxes;
ensuring the well-being of the people and the defense capability of the country;
issuing state currency and supporting its value;
formation and maintenance of the army;
regulating interstate and foreign commerce;
introduction of a unified system of weights and measures;
declaration of war.

Note 2

The executive branch was headed by an elected president. He could become a citizen of the country by birth who has reached the age of 35 years. He could serve as president for four years, and after being re-elected for another four years. A citizen had no right to participate in presidential elections for the third time.

The powers of the head of state were great. The president was the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces, controlled the activities of executive departments, concluded international treaties, signed an act of pardon, and much more.

The judicial branch was headed by the Supreme Court. Its composition was limited to nine (six before 1869) members. The Senate elected candidates on the proposal of the President. The Supreme Court served as the highest court and interpreter of the Constitution. The state had a system of federal and state courts. The jury tried cases of crimes, except in cases of impeachment.