Pocheptsov G.G. Twentieth Century Communication Technologies
Georgy Pocheptsov
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIESTWENTIETH CENTURY
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Preface.
Chapter one.Communication space and his organization.
1. Symbolic organization.
2. Visual organization.
3. Event organization.
4. Mythological organization.
5. Communication organization.
Chapter two. Public relations manager as a profession.
6. PR as an area of professional activity.
7 . Job of a PR manager.
Chapter three.Image maker as a profession.
8. Image and its features.
9. The work of an image maker.
Chapter Four.Spindoctor as a profession.
Introductory words.
11. Spindoctor and his work.
12. Managing news generation mechanisms as the basis for the work of a spin doctor and a press secretary.
13. Features of the communicative space that are significant for a spin doctor.
14. Russian experience of communication event management
Chapter five.Information and psychological warfare.
Introductory words.
15. General model of impact in an information campaign.
16. Intensive models of influence (Brainwashing method) 17. Psychological operations and asymmetric the nature of information weapons.
18. International impact projects on public opinion.
Chapter six.Negotiator as a profession.
19. Negotiator and his work.
20. Negotiation theory.
21. Negotiations with terrorists.
Chapter seven.Crisis management as a profession.
22. Features of crisis communications.
23. Mechanisms of communication impact in crisis situations.
24. Crisis communications in the Chernobyl situation.
Chapter eight.Electoral (humanitarian) technologies
25. Factors in image formation during the election campaign.
26. Strategy and tactics of the election campaign.
27. Symbolic “copybooks” in elections.
Chapter Nine.Speechwriter as a profession.
28. Speechwriter and his work.
29. Speeches, their writing and delivery.
Chapter ten.Press secretary as a profession.
30. The press secretary and his work.
Chapter Eleven.Rumor specialist.
31. Rumors and their use.
Chapter thirteen.Psychotherapist.
34. Psychotherapeutic communication.
Psychoanalysis.
Group psychotherapy.
Chapter fourteen.General model communication technology.
Conclusion.
Why does a dog wag its tail?
Because she's smarter than her tail.
If it were the other way around -
the tail would wag like a dog.
(From the American film "The Tail Wags the Dog")
Preface
In this book we will look at most of the technologies of the 20th century. These communication technologies have a large number of common characteristics, which makes it possible to combine them under a single book cover. Their characteristic feature is an attempt to influence mass consciousness, which distinguishes them from other options for interpersonal influence.
If communication theory is the basic research discipline for a given professional field, then public relations is the same basic applied science. This is reflected in the constant flow of specialists from one area to another. Thus, in the USA, a number of specialists enter the field of public relations after working in the so-called Krill Committee, which was engaged in propaganda primarily within their own country. In the UK, a similar transition occurred after the Second World War, since these specialists in the field of “intensive communication” could not accept the advertising sector due to its insufficient development in conditions of product shortages.
PR, like other communication technologies, being mainly an invention of the twentieth century, will move with us into the twenty-first century, where they will receive their full development. The professions of the future should be prepared today.
All these professions are not something new for us; they existed under different names and with different intensity of work during the Soviet period. If, for example, a speechwriter was called a referent, this did not change the nature of his work. Or such an example as the work of the foreign policy information department of the CPSU Central Committee. Its first head, L. Zamyatin, recalls: “The new department of the Central Committee was supposed to, based on the extensive information received by the Central Committee through the channels of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the KGB, the GRU and other sources, prepare detailed analytical reviews with conclusions and recommendations, which were put on the table of the Secretary General , and, at the same time, were reported to members of the Politburo. These reviews, as a rule, contained specific proposals on how to respond to certain important events occurring in the world through our press, special information and disinformation services of the KGB"*. As you can see, there is both the work of a spin doctor and the work of a psychological operations specialist. By the way, F. Taylor** also emphasizes that Soviet propaganda specialists more often won in their initiatives, since propaganda was interconnected with politics. No less significant is his remark that the Soviet Union did not so much lose the Cold War as declare a “default” (after the events of August 17, this word has already become completely Russian).
In total, we can combine all these new professions with the word “communicator”. This word has already appeared in the language of the elite. Deputy Head of the Russian Presidential Administration Oleg Sysuev says: “The situation in the regions differs in many respects from what is happening in Moscow at party headquarters. People there look at things much more realistically, there is a different language of relations. And it is there that we are going to act as communicators”* **.
A communicator is a profession of the future, the status of which will constantly increase as we move towards information civilization.
* Zamyatin L.M.Gorby and Maggie. - M., 1995. - P. 13.
** TaylorP.M. Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. - Manchester etc., 1995. - P. 268
*** "General newspaper", 1999, № 4.
Chapter one
Communication space and its organization
1. Symbolic organization
What is the benefit of a symbol for building communication? A symbol contains more information than a regular word. The symbol, as a rule, relies on a more ancient arsenal of influence than our acquisitions today. A symbol is something that has already influenced our ancestors as an effective tool.
The word is also a symbol. But it is a symbol with a more clearly defined area of content. Typical symbols, as a rule, are more emotionally loaded with a less clear content area. Wed. “star” or “swastika”, where the rational content is additionally inscribed by those who use them. The vagueness of the content allows communicators to use symbols to their advantage. W. Reich devotes a separate chapter of his book to the symbolism of the swastika*. He interprets it as a sexual symbol. But this is only one of the possible interpretations.
We are moving through the process of encoding messages within visual space (through centuries, constantly improving
* TaylorP.M.
Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. - Manchester, 1995. - P. 52-53.
visual coding method). A typical example for Russia is the transition from religious icons to political posters from the civil war. F. Taylor, for example, considers the posters of that time to be the greatest contribution of the Soviet Union to the history of fine art, noting that the Bolsheviks chose the most effective method given the illiteracy of the population of that time. That is, the visual method is constantly among the leaders, except for the short-term dominance of radio. We can depict it like this:
icons posters
radio
TV
The visual message is more lasting. It is generated according to uniform norms, which can be seen from the emergence of the same ideas within the framework of Western and Eastern versions of the following posters: “A chatterbox is a godsend for a spy” and “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” Similar sets of cartoons were sold after the accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. We think alike, generating the same types of solutions, which are then visualized with some variations.
The special role of the visual channel led, for example, to the introduction of censorship specifically in the field of visual messages in the press communication model during the Persian Gulf War, as a result of which photographs of destroyed American tanks and wounded soldiers were not published. Television, being primarily a visual channel, “evened out” this situation with computer animation, which brought additional costs.
The absence of a visual television channel in some historical periods did not eliminate mankind's craving for visuality. For example, it is estimated that 20 million postcards with the image of Mussolini were issued, and two thousand different subjects were depicted on them. Moreover, it was not only the propaganda machine that produced them: people need to visualize those whom they consider heroes.
However, visualization can specify something that might not have been there initially. The Catholic Church, for example, had doubts about the correctness of the image of God in the image of a handsome old man with a gray beard. "For Pope John Paul II, these images are no longer convincing. Over the past 20 years, the pope has carried out an actual revision of theological doctrine, during which he came to the conclusion that the human principle should not be so clearly present in the image of the Divine, while the early Christians took pagan figures as a basis the god Zeus, which strongly smacks of idolatry. True, the pontiff did not instruct artists on how exactly the Almighty should be depicted, and refrained from commenting on the gender of the Creator. However, the media did this for him, remembering the previous Pope John Paul I. In three short weeks. During his reign in 1978, he amazed the world with the revelation of the feminine nature of God, who should be considered a mother rather than a father."* That is, the visualization that was once chosen gave rise to a type of God that is difficult to change today.
The television channel has brought the face of the politician closer to the population, and, as a result, various problems arise. Thus, they thought about portraying M. Thatcher as younger in election posters. But then they abandoned this idea, because they realized that the voter would compare the television Thatcher with her poster and draw a conclusion about the untruth inherent in it. On the other hand, the creators of R. Reagan's election posters were not afraid to make them based on the early filming of the actor-politician. V. Kostikov has similar problems in mind when he talks about the changes that a politician’s appearance undergoes during his time in power: “Nothing, perhaps, wears out a person more than power and the struggle for it. And this is not only Yeltsin’s problem. Remember the faces of Gorbachev, Rutsky, Khasbulatov, Stankevich, Sobchak, Shumeiko - what “good fellows” they were when they first came into power, and how they became worn out while “walking in power.” I see this on the faces of my friends from the team. president. Colossal nervousness is taking its toll.
* “Abroad”, 1999, No. 3.
stress, disturbed sleep. Of course, the lack of positive emotions also has a negative impact - a consequence of working in conditions of crisis and instability."* So the problem of recognition also has a negative aspect.
Visual symbols, compared to verbal ones, have greater durability and versatility. These are very important parameters for a communicator. W. Eco notes “the immeasurable distances separating dictators (Hitler in the stadium in Nuremberg and Mussolini on the balcony of the Palazzo Venice) or despots sitting on their high thrones”**. You can add to this list the world’s largest areas, blast furnaces, etc.
Visual symbolism also provides the multi-channel impact that the communicator strives for. Messages sent through multiple channels must correlate with each other. The royal speech must match the pomp of the royal attire. The jester's clothing, woven from multi-colored pieces, reflects his type of message. A clown with a huge red nose, red hair and boots of unimaginable size cannot act as an object of worship.
Yeltsin on a tank repeats Lenin on an armored car. This is a model of spontaneity, fear and the call to battle. Fear and danger were demonstrated by A. Korzhakov, who covered B. Yeltsin with a bulletproof vest. The conscription character is associated with the right to appeal in such a situation, which only managers have. Only they can be listened to by the crowd, which itself is deprived of the right to vote.
Violation of the type of clothing demonstrates a loss (Germans in women's clothing near Moscow). Kerensky was deliberately mythologized in a woman's dress in order to demonstrate the losing nature of the confrontation. It’s just that Kerensky in hiding is not as effective as Kerensky in women’s clothing. Stalin in a soldier's overcoat demonstrates all the axioms of Soviet society such as “equality” and “brotherhood”.
* Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 193.
** Eco U. Missing structure. Introduction to semiology. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - P. 250.
The lavishly decorated Brezhnev reflects a mixture of genres: one cannot be afraid of a leader who is being laughed at. B. Borisov speaks in this case about his operatic character: “L. Brezhnev, in this manner of stylistic assessment of the image, has the appearance of an opera singer. Numerous orders and thick eyebrows complemented the opera paraphernalia. Paradoxically, all this was emphasized by diction, or rather its absence, with phraseological masterpieces such as “the peoples of the Asian contingent”*. In this case, we would rather talk about the operetta character, taking into account the reaction of the audience. It is precisely the operetta that is characterized by a dual point of view, when some situations and persons on the stage are unknown to the characters, but are known and understandable to the audience (for example, knowledge. /ignorance that the hero is actually the heroine).
Unfortunately, the dictators who most ideally demonstrate the qualities of a leader are Lenin and Stalin. The crowd does not experience ambivalent feelings towards them, but only a feeling of admiration. The crowd brings to life types with exaggeration of one trait, it is they who have a hypnotic effect on the mass consciousness. The crowd is in a state akin to a hypnotic trance. Let's call it trance of the crowd, when individual differences are erased, and herd behavior becomes dominant. For this reason, the crowd operates only with polar reactions such as adoration/rage. In general, in any meeting, collective emotions become the main ones, while individual behavior is blocked. For example, to achieve the necessary unity of behavior, totalitarian sects try not to leave a person alone with himself.
For the crowd, the main ones are negative emotions. Its positive direction requires skillful conducting, like ceremonial meetings where there is a fairly strict script. The crowd “eats” intermediate arguments, operating only with the goal. There is a corresponding communication rule: “Messages related to goals are better received by the audience than messages that
* Borisov EL. Advertising and public relations. Alchemy of power. - M., 1998. - P. 85.
related to intermediate stages and methods of achieving these goals."* The crowd does not react to complex content.
At the same time, it should be remembered that visual symbols are a form for certain content. Well-chosen content becomes the key to the success of a visual symbol. R.E. Herzstein describes the posters that brought Hitler to power: “Hitler’s enemies were the embodiment of evil, Hitler was seen as an avenging angel who stood up for the desecrated Germany. Posters appeared everywhere - on the walls of buildings, in kiosks, in the windows of party offices and in the windows of everyone who sympathized with Hitler. Their themes were simple, but they appealed to two strong emotions: hatred and idealization."**
One can also cite V. Kostikov’s opinion about the clearly visualized speeches of the opposition press that most annoyed him. For example: “Yeltsin with a glass, Yeltsin with a bottle, Yeltsin “dancing”, Yeltsin with a plump face after tasting kumis in Kalmykia... All these pictures are well known to us from photographs, and from cartoons, and from mocking ditties in newspapers.” Day" or "Soviet Russia"***.
Visual symbols from different systems interact weakly with each other. Therefore, the city can be decorated with monuments from different eras. Visual symbols themselves generate the context around them.
3. Event organization
There is an important pattern familiar to all influence specialists: not only do people believe what they see more than what they hear, but they also believe events more than words. The reason for this is the same in both cases. A word is always a description of a situation, and when evaluating it, we begin to consider it as truth or
* CenterA. N., Jackson P. Public Relations Practices. - Englewood Cliffs., 1990. - P. 5.
** Hertzstein R.E. The war that Hitler won. - Smolensk, 1996. - P. 257.
*** Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 162.
lie. An event is always reality, that is, always true. Therefore it is more convincing. At the same time, people usually do not think that an event can also be organized and rehearsed. By the way, the American field manual for psychological operations, when talking about organizing a crowd for any purpose, emphasizes that it should appear spontaneous and not organized.
The event should be remembered for its originality. For example, when preparing Boris Yeltsin’s visit to America, he named the state of Montana as the place of visit. “For me, going to Montana,” explains Yeltsin, “is the same as if President Bush, being in Russia, went to Magadan. It would be a shock for everyone. You need to be able to find a zest in politics...”*
Another example that remains in the memory of Canadians is Boris Yeltsin’s trip to Vancouver. S. Yastrzhembsky recalls: “Boris Nikolayevich amazed everyone when he got off the plane in the pouring rain without an umbrella. Everything looked amazing. At the airport, as expected during an official visit, a guard of honor was lined up. And suddenly Yeltsin, in the downpour, gave up his umbrella.
There is an alphabet of events that allows you to write the necessary scripts in a fairly technological manner. A stormy meeting, a protracted wait, delight - all these are cubes from which skilled specialists put together the necessary set that allows them to reflect their plans. An event in politics will never be random. Only the systemic one survives, designed to reflect the characteristics needed at the moment.
The event allows you to “drag” the leader’s inherent characteristics. Therefore, politicians love to discover everything new, cutting ribbons, they love to meet famous people, falling under the aura of their attention. Yeltsin, wearing a red beret and military uniform when visiting troops, reflected the authorities' determination to fight the opposition. The election Yeltsin in a sweater at KVN reflected openness and simplicity, which is a characteristic that “works” for
* Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 60.
elections because the population wants to elect someone who can hear about their woes. The event “completes” the image of the politician to its ideal completion. And this is better perceived by the population than a verbal story about the same politician.
An event can also be organized against a particular background, which in turn will influence the interpretation of the event and the behavior of its participants. V. Kostikov recalls B. Yeltsin’s meeting with the chief editors of newspapers. “Subsequently, such meetings were repeated more than once, and at the president’s suggestion they began to be held not in the solemn Catherine Hall, where the walls themselves with their royal gilding seemed to muffle the severity and frankness of the discussion. But in one of the nearest country mansions on Academician Varga Street, in the so-called ABC mansion, meetings with journalists took place here in a fairly relaxed atmosphere with a minimum of protocol conventions. After the official part, the conversation moved to the table and often dragged on."*
N. Khrushchev's meeting with the creative intelligentsia was based on a similar model. Mikhail Romm recalled: “Khrushchev stood up and said” that we invited you to talk, they say, but so that the conversation would be more intimate, better, more frank, we will be frank with you, we decided - first let’s have a bite. We’ll have a bite, and then Let's talk"**. True, the second meeting took place in the hall.
An event is the same type of message as a verbal text. Any event is constructed in accordance with the need to generate information, only in a different way. The ceremonial assembly reflected reverence, so it granted the right to vote only to a select few. M. Gorbachev's meeting with the people on the street was supposed to symbolize not only new thinking, but also a new type of listening, which previous Soviet leaders did not have.
In conclusion, here is an example of the lengthy conclusions of psychologists regarding President Yeltsin:
“Psychologists spoke with assistants, watched videos of various “appearances” of Yeltsin to the people, wrote
* Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 78.
**
Romm
M. Oral histories. - M., 1989. - P. 126.
generally reasonable conclusions. They said that Yeltsin should not wave his hand so sharply, he should not sit in front of a television camera with a stony face, it would be good to smile more often, it would be good to show him more with his family, it would be better to speak not on television, but on the radio - and so on and so forth. ..."
In general, these recommendations did not go beyond normal common sense. They are suitable for any politician who would like to improve his image. Well, for example:
“Speech and behavior should reflect determination to achieve success, confidence in the ability to achieve this, calmness, absence of a sharp reaction to malicious attacks and criticism, goodwill towards all who at least constructively support the Constitution, composure.”*
It follows that the pre-calculated characteristics of the leader must be realized in events specially designed for this case.
4. Mythological organization
Myths act as a data bank from which all serious ideas and goals are drawn. Even if we do not admit the existence of certain archetypes, we should agree that a certain set of plots has a high degree of repetition, and a new plot arises based on their existence. Let's take for example an American film, called in the translated version "My Friend Dutch". In it, a rich boy from a divorced family travels across America to visit his mother, accompanied by her lover, whom he hates because he belongs to a different social class. During this journey, he sheds his arrogance and eventually turns away from his rich father. We have before us the plot of “The Prince and the Pauper,” in which wealth is associated with a set of not very good qualities. Finding ourselves in real, not hothouse,
* Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 163.
conditions, the boy has to give up many habits in order to adapt to his new environment. For example, in a canteen for the poor he shares a piece of bread with a little black girl, i.e. begins to show qualities that he did not have before. These qualities take into account the existence of other people who previously did not have access to this boy's world.
The famous film “Home Alone” exploits the mythology “My home is my fortress”; it is the reliance on it that allows a little boy to resist two adult robbers. It is this mythology that sets all the rules of behavior and justifies the plot.
The very idea of a “happy ending” is again mythological, since it sets a clear interpretation of the world: no matter what happens in it, the world still rewards the worthy. This is a fairly Christian idea, which is why it is so widespread. In addition, the tension created by the film, from a psychological point of view, must be resolved.
The simplicity of American cinema, which often irritates European viewers, at the same time speaks of reaching a level more appropriate for a mass audience. This is where the box office success of these films comes from. In this regard, cinema acts as a serious indicator of the interests of mass consciousness. The childishness of American adult cinema (such as “Superman”) speaks only of the childishness of the mass audience in its overall quality. If commercial success lay on a different plane, cinema would quickly restructure itself, since it does not dictate its own interests, but reflects the interests of its viewer.
S. Eisenstein believed that the form in art is determined by a tendency towards regression, that is, reliance on proven plot patterns, while the content gives a tendency towards progress. Vyach. Sun. Ivanov formulates S. Eisenstein’s ideas about the main problem of art in the following way, where the search for a combination of the conscious and the deeply sensual is being carried out: “An impact on the viewer or listener is possible only on the condition that the very form of the work is addressed to these deep archaic layers of consciousness. It is inseparable from them and therefore may be subject to the most severe criticism of those higher strata of consciousness, whose participation in modern art is desirable, but not always feasible"*. The circus, from Eisenstein’s point of view, exploits this sensory component to the maximum, therefore it cannot be loaded with any content.
Any social group begins to “grow” with a common mythology as a result of numerous communicative contacts. Including artificially created identities. For example, "new community - Soviet people" had not only an official Soviet mythology, but also an unofficial one, expressed, for example, by the film "The Irony of Fate", which completely lacked ideological references, which completely contradicted the official layer supported by the state apparatus. A set of films broadcast on television during the New Year holidays, clearly reflects the existence of this “meta-culture” as common to both Russia and Ukraine.
There is a certain genre mythology, an example of which is detective. It takes place under the sign of the mythological confrontation between the villain and the hero, the latter often being realized in the form of a detective or a policeman. The villain, within the framework of the proposed grammar, must win all battles except the last one. In this case, the hero must win a single-handed fight, without resorting to the help of his colleagues. For this reason, the final fight, like many others, is almost indistinguishable from an attack by the villain. We can also highlight the following deviations of the detective from the norm. Firstly- this is involvement in the action, when the viewer/reader practically does not have the opportunity to tear himself away until the last second/last page. We can say that in this case, verbal and, accordingly, discrete text turns into a continuum characteristic of visual text. W. Eco writes about visual communication: “In the continuum of the iconic sign, we are not able to isolate discrete meaning distinguishers, forever sorting them into shelves”**.
* Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Eisenstein's aesthetics // Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Selected works on semiotics and cultural history. - T. I. - M., 1998. - P. 287.
** Eco U. Missing structure. Introduction to semiology. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - P. 137.
Secondly, Priority is given to different types of signs. If the norm is characterized by signs-symbols, then for the detective, the signs-indexes by which the crime is reconstructed are significant. Thirdly, the detective is more emotionally charged. This kind of text is reflected in its poverty of plot. As a matter of fact, we have the same ratio in such emotionally charged texts as a pop song, which is also characterized by a poor plot. This is probably a general characteristic of popular culture. In summary, we can present these differences in the following table:
Getting into the sphere of such grammar quite clearly sets the possible ways of developing the situation in a detective story, which distinguishes it from other similar genre mythologies.
Mythologems are interesting for the communicator because they are accepted by everyone as a given, without checking for truth. Joining myths can dramatically increase the effectiveness of messages. Thus, the instructional letter “On the procedure for media coverage of events around the Chechen conflict and its information support”* is based on old and current mythologies. For example: “To show that the Russian state in the person of the disloyal Chechens has an incorrigible enemy, nurtured
* Information war in Chechnya. - M.. 1997. - From 89 - 91.
and supported from abroad and by fascist elements from the CIS countries."
“Choose a derogatory form of presentation when describing enemy leaders, revealing all their primitiveness, embitterment, cruelty and bestial essence.”
“Create information arrays that highlight the power and spirit of the Russian army, the strength of Russian weapons. Reveal the mercantile interests of Chechen militant bandits and their inherent fear.”
There are obvious references here to mythologies that have already been tested many times, which should be revived and applied to a new object.
5. Communication organization
As a law of communication technologies, one should recognize the tendency to rely on communication flows already existing in society when issuing messages. Communication lies at their core, since by making changes in communication they try to achieve changes in behavior due to changes made in the human model of the world. These transitions can be illustrated as follows:
changes in communication changes in the model of the world changes in behavior
Having chosen to rely on the types of communication available in society, we naturally move on to the next step - relying on the types of communicators that are most effective for a given audience. This is due to the adopted two-stage communication scheme, when it was discovered that the audience is not only and not so much influenced by the media, but by the subsequent discussion of their news together with “opinion leaders”. The term "key communicators" is used in this sense.
R. Orth suggests distinguishing between “people of prestige” and “key communicators”*. Both of them have the opportunity
* Orth R.H. Prestigious Persons and Key Communicators // Military Propaganda. Psychological Warfare and Operations. - New York, 1982.
effect on the public, but “people of prestige” are more likely to play the role of “gatekeepers”, determining what news will reach the audience. At the same time, “key communicators” themselves influence the population. Since they are in constant contact with the population, they are better aware of its desires and interests. There are two types of key communicators: those with influence in one area, and those with influence in many areas. The latter types are more typical of traditional types of societies. The list of “key communicators” is specified by the choice of topic in question. But at the same time, for some societies it is possible to compile a list of carriers of such communicative influence. For example, for Thailand the list is as follows (in order of importance): monks, professionals, military, government officials, doctors, merchants. Unlike the older generation, young people follow foreign news more closely.
The general characteristics of a key communicator can be summarized as follows (R. 343):
He is more open to the media and other sources of information; he passes this news on to the group, interpreting it along the way.
Typically, technological innovation processes begin with it.
He takes a more central place in society, more clearly expressing the values of his group. He is more part of the group than people of prestige.
In the field of agriculture, public relations, and medicine, his status is higher than that of others.
He is usually more educated.
He's younger.
From this set of signs it follows that we have before us a younger member of society, who is nevertheless more educated and occupies higher positions. To find key communicators, the following is suggested:
Sociometric method: group members are asked who they would turn to for advice or information.
Key Communicator Method: the experimenter asks the most informed members of the group who they consider to be key communicators.
Self-determination method: The respondent answers a set of questions to determine whether he or she is a key communicator.
In his other work, R. Orth identifies a number of characteristics of the message source that affect its effectiveness*:
Proximity with the recipient of information. The proximity of the assessments is more important than the proximity of the area in which the impact is achieved. In general, the closer the source and recipient are to each other, the sooner the recipient's change will be achieved. By the way, for this reason, in the theory of negotiations, one of the first rules requires demonstrating the closeness (biography, interests, hobbies, etc.) of the negotiator with the opponent.
Intention. If the intent to persuade is clear, the audience will be suspicious of the message. When conducting psychological operations, it is important to remember that the consumer of information will always strive to attribute intention to the impact of such messages. A possible strategy in this case is to demonstrate that the source has sympathy for the recipient.
Contradiction. It must be such that the possibility of common action is preserved. Therefore, the source must be within the limits acceptable for the recipient of the information.
Credibility. The source must be reliable for the recipient. It may be reliable for the recipient in one situation, but become unreliable in another. This phenomenon should only be analyzed from the audience's point of view.
Expertise. To be effective, the source must have expertise in the area being discussed.
In general, the communication process should proceed in such a way as to enhance those parameters that have
* Orth R.H. Source Factors in Persuasion // Ibid.
acting force on the source. R. Cialdini examined such influencing characteristics as titles, clothing and attributes*. Experiments, for example, showed that 95% of nurses automatically followed clearly erroneous doctor's instructions. In terms of clothing, the experimenter, dressed in uniform, had more success when he forced others on the street to comply with some of his demands. For example, the percentage of pedestrians who complied with the demands of a man in uniform was 92%. Prestige cars were considered as an example of an attribute: 50% of drivers waited patiently for such a car to move at a green light, while almost all honked when the same happened to a cheap model in front of them. That is, in a number of situations a person behaves automatically, without thinking, and these situations are of particular interest to the communicator.
The spread of ideas can be subject to theory of diffusion by E. Rogers**. According to it, the critical point of distribution becomes 5% of the population, but in order to convince them, you must reach 50% of the population with your message. When passing 20%, the idea already lives its own life and no longer requires intensive communication support.
E. Rogers proposed six stages through which the process of adapting an idea goes through:
1. Attention.
1. Interest.
3. Evaluation.
4. Examination.
5. Adaptation.
6. Confession.
E. Rogers also identified the following five types of people in relation to the recognition of a new idea or product:
1. Innovators, the number of which is 2.5%. They are mobile, have communications beyond the local culture, and are able to recognize abstract ideas.
* Cialdini R. Psychology of influence. - M., 1999.
** By Center A.H., Jackson P. Public Relations Practices. - Englewood Cliffs, 1990.
2. Early adapters making up 13.5%. This is a respectable group, integrated into the local culture and representing opinion leaders within it.
3. Early minority accounting for 34%. These are the hesitant ones. They embrace new ideas just before the average citizen does.
4. Late majority accounting for 34%. These are the skeptics who decide after the average citizen does. Peer pressure is important to him.
5. Late adapters, making up 16%. These are traditionalists. They are the last to make a decision and are very suspicious of everything new.
Such distribution is important for the promotion of new goods and services, since their introduction is possible only with the help of certain segments of the population that are more inclined to everything new. There is also a group of people who are fundamentally far from anything new.
It is also necessary to pay attention communication systems theories as a subfield of communication theory. Both theories are based on the concept of information asymmetry, but their use is different. Information asymmetry brings to life communication so that as a result of its communication, the knowledge of the source and recipient is equalized. Basically about communicative unit we can speak precisely in the aspect when the decision of one individual is carried out by another, that is, when there is a transition between two systems. Communication is always an inter-level transfer of information.
At the same time about communication system we are talking about a system in which information asymmetry is maintained. For example, text is such a closed communication system. It can be considered as a certain accumulation of communicative disturbances, due to which its own rules of behavior begin to operate within its framework.
Communication systems are interested in means of creating and maintaining information asymmetry. In the text this will be: allowed and prohibited behavior options for heroes, typical characteristics of a hero/anti-hero, a typical ending, a typical ending (for example, a happy end). Text is an artificially maintained asymmetry within a certain space. Therefore, text researchers attach special importance to the concept of its frames and boundaries. The consumer of information is interested in information asymmetry - cf. returning to the same text, rereading the text.
Communication systems can be divided into monologue And dialogical. In the first case, the generation of a message occurs in one place; the most important thing for the system is the “purity” of communication channels so that the message reaches its destination without interference. The consumer has no right to evade the execution of the order contained in the message. When the message reaches him, an automatic response follows.
A variant of monologue communication can be a monument in the square, which cannot be opposed in the form of dialogue. Therefore, the monument will always be a message coming from the authorities. The authorities always give preference to classical art over mass art, since it is also more monological.
In a dialogical system there are many sources that have the right to generate messages. In the first case of hierarchical communication, there is a constant need to sacralize the source (leader, corpus of texts). In the second case, developing a coordinated response becomes more important. Hence the focus on conservatism in the first case and the focus on innovation in the second. In the first case, those who are closer to the source, to the set of texts, come to the fore. This is the function of the interpreter (for example, the classics of Marxism-Leninism). While the text remains unchanged, it must be interpreted so that it corresponds to the constantly changing reality. In a dialogical system, the text initially corresponds to reality because it is constantly changing. In one case we have an unchangeable text, in the other - a changeable one.
A communicator is a specialist in creating information asymmetry and in the functioning of communication systems. "Iron Curtain" is one of the filter options (censorship, gatekeeper theory), which allows
keep information asymmetry within a certain space. The communicator is interested in the durability of his information asymmetry to withstand outside disturbances as he generates messages in a competitive communication environment.
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“Georgy Pocheptsov COMMUNICATIVE TECHNOLOGIES OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY Refl-book Wakler UDC 659.4 BBK 71.413 Executive editor S.L. ..."
-- [ Page 1 ] --
Pocheptsov G. “Communication technologies of the twentieth century”
Georgy Pocheptsov
COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
TWENTIETH CENTURY
"Refl-book"
Pocheptsov G. “Communication technologies of the twentieth century”
Executive editor S.L. Udovik
Design by V.V. Chutur
Reprinting of individual chapters and the work as a whole without the written permission of the publishing houses “Refl-book” or “Vakler” is prohibited and is punishable by law.
Published with the assistance of Elga LLC ISBN 5-87983-082-9 (Refl-book) © G.G. Pocheptsov, © Refl-book, 1999 ISBN 966 543-049-1 (Wackler) © Wackler, series, 1999 ISBN 5433-048-3 (series) Contents Preface.
Chapter one. Communication space and its organization.
1. Symbolic organization.
2. Visual organization.
3. Event organization.
4. Mythological organization.
5. Communication organization.
Chapter two. Public relations manager as a profession.
6. PR as an area of professional activity.
7. The work of a PR manager.
Chapter three. Image maker as a profession.
8. Image and its features.
9. The work of an image maker.
Chapter Four. Spindoctor as a profession.
Introductory words.
10. Spindoctor: from the history of different times and peoples.
11. Spindoctor and his work.
12. Managing news generation mechanisms as the basis for the work of a spin doctor and a press secretary.
13. Features of the communicative space that are significant for a spin doctor.
14. Russian experience of communicative event management Chapter five. Information and psychological warfare.
Introductory words.
15. General model of impact in an information campaign.
16. Intensive models of influence (Brainwashing method) 17.
Psychological operations and the asymmetric nature of information weapons.
18. International projects to influence public opinion.
Chapter six. Negotiator as a profession.
19. Negotiator and his work.
20. Negotiation theory.
21. Negotiations with terrorists.
Chapter seven. Crisis management as a profession.
22. Features of crisis communications.
23. Mechanisms of communicative influence in crisis situations.
24. Crisis communications in the Chernobyl situation.
Chapter eight. Electoral (humanitarian) technologies
25. Factors in image formation during the election campaign.
26. Strategy and tactics of the election campaign.
27. Symbolic “copybooks” in elections.
Chapter Nine. Speechwriter as a profession.
28. Speechwriter and his work.
29. Speeches, their writing and delivery.
Chapter ten. Press secretary as a profession.
30. The press secretary and his work.
Chapter Eleven. Rumor specialist.
31. Rumors and their use.
Chapter thirteen. Psychotherapist.
34. Psychotherapeutic communication.
Psychoanalysis.
Group psychotherapy.
Chapter fourteen. General model of communication technology.
Conclusion.
– – –
Preface In this book we will look at most of the technologies of the 20th century. These communication technologies have a large number of common characteristics, which makes it possible to combine them under a single book cover. Their characteristic feature is an attempt to influence mass consciousness, which distinguishes them from other options for interpersonal influence.
If communication theory is the basic research discipline for a given professional field, then public relations is the same basic applied science. This is reflected in the constant flow of specialists from one area to another.
Thus, in the USA, a number of specialists enter the field of public relations after working in the so-called Krill Committee, which was engaged in propaganda primarily within their own country. In the UK, a similar transition occurred after the Second World War, since these specialists in the field of “intensive communication” could not accept the advertising sector due to its insufficient development in conditions of product shortages.
PR, like other communication technologies, being mainly an invention of the twentieth century, will move with us into the twenty-first century, where they will receive their full development. The professions of the future should be prepared today.
All these professions are not something new for us; they existed under different names and with different intensity of work during the Soviet period. If, for example, a speechwriter was called a referent, this did not change the nature of his work. Or such an example as the work of the foreign policy information department of the CPSU Central Committee. Its first head, L. Zamyatin, recalls: “The new department of the Central Committee was supposed to, based on the extensive information received by the Central Committee through the channels of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the KGB, the GRU and other sources, prepare detailed analytical reviews with conclusions and recommendations, which were put on the table of the Secretary General , and, at the same time, were reported to members of the Politburo. These reviews, as a rule, contained specific proposals on how to respond to certain important events occurring in the world through our press, special information and disinformation services of the KGB"*. As you can see, there is both the work of a spin doctor and the work of a psychological operations specialist. By the way, F. Taylor** also emphasizes that Soviet propaganda specialists more often won in their initiatives, since propaganda was interconnected with politics. No less significant is his remark that the Soviet Union did not so much lose the Cold War as declare a “default” (after the events of August 17, this word has already become completely Russian).
In total, we can combine all these new professions with the word “communicator”. This word has already appeared in the language of the elite. Deputy Head of the Russian Presidential Administration Oleg Sysuev says: “The situation in the regions differs in many respects from what is happening in Moscow at party headquarters. People there look at things much more realistically, there is a different language of relations. And it is there that we are going to act as communicators”* **.
A communicator is a profession of the future, the status of which will constantly increase as we move towards information civilization.
* Zamyatin L.M. Gorby and Maggie. - M., 1995. - P. 13.
**Taylor P.M. Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. - Manchester etc., 1995. - P. 268 *** "Obshaya Gazeta", 1999, No. 4.
– – –
1. Symbolic organization What is the benefit of a symbol for building communication? A symbol contains more information than a regular word. The symbol, as a rule, relies on a more ancient arsenal of influence than our acquisitions today. A symbol is something that has already influenced our ancestors as an effective tool.
The word is also a symbol. But it is a symbol with a more clearly defined area of content. Typical symbols, as a rule, are more emotionally loaded with a less clear content area. Wed. “star” or “swastika”, where the rational content is additionally inscribed by those who use them. The vagueness of the content allows communicators to use symbols to their advantage. W. Reich devotes a separate chapter of his book to the symbolism of the swastika*. He interprets it as a sexual symbol. But this is only one of the possible interpretations.
With the help of symbols we can connect to other, more information-rich spheres. As a matter of fact, this is how P. Florensky interprets the symbol when he says that the symbol is greater than itself: “A symbol is such an essence, the energy of which, fused or, more precisely, dissolved with the energy of some other, more valuable in this respect, essence, thus carries , in yourself this last one"**. It is interesting that he operates with the phenomenon of resonance, which in our time is already included in special propaganda techniques.
* Reich V. Psychology of the masses and fascism. - St. Petersburg, 1997.
** Florensky P.A. Imeslavie as a philosophical premise // Florensky P.A. Op. - T. 2. - M., 1990. - S.
Politicians and government officials try to connect to positively colored symbols. A certain law of connection applies here: if object X connects to a positively or negatively colored symbol, then it itself becomes positively or negatively colored in response. True, A. Volsky stated in the Russian Century program (NTV, 1999, January 8) that all publications are good, except for the obituary.
One or another type of behavior can be symbolic or iconic. For example, L.
Zamyatin describes the first meeting of M. Gorbachev and M. Thatcher in the following way: “Gorbachev has in his pocket a memo “On Conversations with M. Thatcher” prepared and passed through the channels of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. When both interlocutors sat down by the fireplace, they talked, as is usual in London light, about the weather, Mikhail Sergeevich put his hand in the inner pocket of his jacket in order to arm himself with instructions, and Margaret opened her black handbag. And then Gorbachev suddenly said: “What if we talk freely, without these papers?” "- responded Margaret. This is how their conversation began11*. M. Gorbachev and R. Reagan also refused to use papers when they met. Violation of an accepted ritual becomes a significant fact of behavior, predetermines its value, sets its special significance. In semiotics, it is generally considered that it is significant is a choice of two options, and in the absence of a choice, we do not see these characteristics at all. Yu. Apresyan once proposed for analysis the phrase “On the way to work, I meet many sighted people in civilian clothes. Everyone interprets this phrase as the action.” occurs during the war, near a hospital, etc. Although it quite fits the description of any working day at any point in space-time, where we always meet “many sighted people in civilian clothes.”
Symbols accumulate human experience, marking its key moments. It is for this reason that humanity generates symbols and fights for symbols, which act as cornerstones that separate types of life and social groups.
The symbols of other things clearly separated events, spaces and time from each other. The world was structured according to the analogy of the periodic * Zamyatin LZ Gorby and Maggie. - M., 1995. - P. 18.
odic repetitions of the same events, going back to the ancestral events. In this cyclical cycle, only symbols were elements belonging to all times at once.
Symbols bear this stamp of times, acting as bonds between different historical periods.
The symbol is unique: the presence of it in me, at the same time, implies the absence of it in you. B. Uspensky, for example, writes about Patriarch Nikon: “Undoubtedly, Nikon in his behavior proceeded from the presence of a special charisma received through patriarchal consecration.
This sacramental act, apparently, determined for him the fundamental difference between the patriarchs and all other Bishops.”*
Contact with a symbol gives the right to different behavior; not only the patriarch begins to have a special charisma, cf., for example, touching shrines, which is characteristic of all religions. Here, the corresponding effect is produced not by visual communication, but only by tactile communication. That is, this is one of the most ancient types of symbolic movements - touch. Modern societies make little use of such symbolic movements because they appear anachronistic. The anachronism lies in the real materiality of the symbol, in this case in a real, not mental action on the part of a person. It is from the past that the kiss of the banner or weapon comes.
Today's world has replaced all these real actions with verbal ones.
Symbols make it possible to tame the Brownian motion of our world. If not for them, the world would have changed beyond recognition. Symbols, with their references to past experience, act as a certain softening of the real dynamics of the world. The world loses its dynamics when it comes into contact with symbols. The symbol in this regard slows down the too fast passage of time.
Communicators always use symbols to their advantage. Symbols are usually materialized, which in the purely verbal world in which we live carries a double burden. That’s why presidents speak against the backdrop of their flags, Uspensky BA. Tsar and Patriarch: Charisma of power in Russia (Byzantine model and all Russian * rethinking). - M., 1998. - P. 103.
Each country has its own version of symbolization, which allows it to position itself among strangers. Wed. the Statue of Liberty as a symbol of the American type and the Motherland as a symbol of the Soviet type. In the grammar of the American world, “Freedom” appears as permitting certain types of behavior. In the grammar of the Soviet world, the direction is set in the opposite direction:
citizens must come to the defense of the Motherland. The two worlds in their symbols turn out to be differently oriented: the state, subordinate to man, and man, subordinate to the state. The fact that the Motherland is depicted with a sword demonstrates the fusion of several symbolic structures into one. These are protective and maternal functions, which, as a rule, are completely opposite.
The symbol is collective, the word is both collective and individual. Therefore, the symbol has a higher status than the word. Within our civilization, symbols often materialize in the form of monuments. But “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” does not symbolize reality, but reflects a different symbolization, ideological - the structure of classes in the former USSR. Therefore, if a symbol reflects reality, it is only indirectly. It expresses a different, symbolic system, thereby increasing the role of symbolization.
Symbols rarely conflict with each other (such as “star” - “swastika”, “cross” - “crescent”). They each live in their own niche. Similar clashes are deliberately created by people, artificially fixing the scope of use of symbols.
Symbols do not form a common grammar; people adjust it to them.
The contextuality of the symbol can be illustrated by K. Simonov’s remark regarding the creation of films of the Stalin era, “the program to combat sycophancy predetermined the creation of a number of films that affirmed our priority in one or another area: field surgery - Pirogov, radio - Popov, Michurin - biology, Pavlov - physiology"*. This list clearly demonstrates the uniqueness of the symbol: nothing else can stand next to it, since it has occupied this space. Wed. impossibility Simonov K. Through the eyes of a man of my generation. Reflections on I.V.Sgalins. - M., 1988. - P. 190-191.
* functioning in parallel with the five-pointed star of some other symbol. On the contrary, the star covers other areas: not only army symbols, but also the quality control department sign, etc.
A symbol is ideal for any communicator, therefore all technological systems of communicative influence necessarily rely on symbols.
2. Visual organization The communicator works with symbols. The most effective medium for implementing symbols is the visual medium. The symbol acts as a specific “anchor” for the situation that must be restored with its help. Quite often, the path to generating a symbol in our time comes from its certain systemic properties, that is, those characteristics that the system requires of it.
Example. "Edelweiss" was chosen as the Fuhrer's favorite flower. In fact, Hitler did not like flowers at all. Edelweiss was the flower of distant mountain peaks, and Hitler, from the point of view of the Germans listening to him, had a special accent of the same kind.
At the same time, it should be emphasized that this is not unique to our age.
Philip Taylor emphasizes: "The spread of Christianity was achieved with the essential help of visual symbolism. Based on the powerful stories of the Old and New Testaments, visual symbols that were easily recognizable and beautiful in their simplicity (the cross being the most obvious example) helped unite people from different areas and different social foundations into a single faith"*.
Visual symbolism acts as a unifier also because differences in language, which are important for a text message, are not significant for it. For a visual symbol, the difference in culture is more important.
We are moving in the process of encoding messages within the framework of visual space (through centuries, constantly improving * Taylor P.M. Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present Day. - Manchester, 1995. - P. 52-53.
visual coding method). A typical example for Russia is the transition from religious icons to political posters from the civil war. F. Taylor, for example, considers the posters of that time to be the greatest contribution of the Soviet Union to the history of fine art, noting that the Bolsheviks chose the most effective method given the illiteracy of the population of that time. That is, the visual method is constantly among the leaders, except for the short-term dominance of radio. We can depict it like this:
icons posters radio television The visual message is more lasting. It is generated according to uniform norms, which can be seen from the emergence of the same ideas within the framework of Western and Eastern versions of the following posters: “A chatterbox is a godsend for a spy” and “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” Similar sets of cartoons were sold after the accidents at Three Mile Island and Chernobyl. We think alike, generating the same types of solutions, which are then visualized with some variations.
The special role of the visual channel led, for example, to the introduction of censorship specifically in the field of visual messages in the press communication model during the Persian Gulf War, as a result of which photographs of destroyed American tanks and wounded soldiers were not published. Television, being primarily a visual channel, “evened out” this situation with computer animation, which brought additional costs.
The absence of a visual television channel in some historical periods did not eliminate mankind's craving for visuality. For example, it is estimated that 20 million postcards with the image of Mussolini were issued, and two thousand different subjects were depicted on them. Moreover, it was not only the propaganda machine that produced them: people need to visualize those whom they consider heroes.
However, visualization can specify something that might not have been there initially. The Catholic Church, for example, had doubts about the correctness of the image of God in the image of a handsome old man with a gray beard. "For Pope John Paul II, these images are no longer convincing. Over the past 20 years, the pope has carried out an actual revision of theological doctrine, during which he came to the conclusion that the human principle should not be so clearly present in the image of the Divine, while the early Christians took pagan figures as a basis the god Zeus, which strongly smacks of idolatry. True, the pontiff did not instruct artists on how exactly the Almighty should be depicted, and refrained from commenting on the gender of the Creator. However, the media did this for him, remembering the previous Pope John Paul I. In three short weeks. During his reign in 1978, he amazed the world with the revelation of the feminine nature of God, who should be considered a mother rather than a father."* That is, the visualization that was once chosen gave rise to a type of God that is difficult to change today.
The television channel has brought the face of the politician closer to the population, and, as a result, various problems arise. Thus, they thought about portraying M. Thatcher as younger in election posters. But then they abandoned this idea, because they realized that the voter would compare the television Thatcher with her poster and draw a conclusion about the untruth inherent in it. On the other hand, the creators of R. Reagan's election posters were not afraid to make them based on the early filming of the actor-politician.
V. Kostikov has similar problems in mind when he talks about the changes that a politician’s appearance undergoes during his time in power: “Nothing, perhaps, wears out a person more than power and the struggle for it. And this is not only Yeltsin’s problem. Remember the faces of Gorbachev, Rutsky, Khasbulatov, Stankevich, Sobchak, Shumeiko - what “good fellows” they were when they first came into power, and how they became worn out while “walking in power.”
Losses are inevitable here. I see this on the faces of my friends from the president's team.
Colossal nervousness is taking its toll “Abroad”, 1999, No. 3.
* stress, disturbed sleep. Of course, the lack of positive emotions also has a negative impact - a consequence of working in conditions of crisis and instability."* So the problem of recognition also has a negative aspect.
Visual symbols, compared to verbal ones, have greater durability and versatility. These are very important parameters for a communicator.
W. Eco notes “the immeasurable distances separating dictators (Hitler in the stadium in Nuremberg and Mussolini on the balcony of the Palazzo Venice) or despots sitting on their high thrones”**. You can add to this list the world’s largest areas, blast furnaces, etc.
Visual symbolism also provides the multi-channel impact that the communicator strives for. Messages sent through multiple channels must correlate with each other. The royal speech must match the pomp of the royal attire. The jester's clothing, woven from multi-colored pieces, reflects his type of message.
A clown with a huge red nose, red hair and boots of unimaginable size cannot act as an object of worship.
Yeltsin on a tank repeats Lenin on an armored car. This is a model of spontaneity, fear and the call to battle. Fear and danger were demonstrated by A. Korzhakov, who covered B. Yeltsin with a bulletproof vest. The conscription character is associated with the right to appeal in such a situation, which only managers have. Only they can be listened to by the crowd, which itself is deprived of the right to vote.
Violation of the type of clothing demonstrates a loss (Germans in women's clothing near Moscow). Kerensky was deliberately mythologized in a woman's dress in order to demonstrate the losing nature of the confrontation. It’s just that Kerensky in hiding is not as effective as Kerensky in women’s clothing. Stalin in a soldier's overcoat demonstrates all the axioms of Soviet society such as “equality” and “brotherhood”.
* Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 193.
** Eco U. Missing structure. Introduction to semiology. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - P. 250.
The lavishly decorated Brezhnev reflects a mixture of genres: one cannot be afraid of a leader who is being laughed at. B. Borisov speaks in this case about his operatic character: “L.
Brezhnev in this manner of stylistic assessment of the image has the appearance of an opera singer. Numerous orders and thick eyebrows complemented the opera paraphernalia. Paradoxically, all this was emphasized by diction, or rather the lack thereof, with phraseological masterpieces such as “the peoples of the Asian contingent”*. In this case, we would rather talk about the operetta character, taking into account the reaction of the audience. It is the operetta that is characterized by a dual point of view, when some situations and persons on stage are unknown to the heroes, but known and understandable to the audience (for example, knowledge/ignorance that the hero is in fact the heroine).
Unfortunately, the dictators who most ideally demonstrate the qualities of a leader are Lenin and Stalin. The crowd does not experience ambivalent feelings towards them, but only a feeling of admiration. The crowd brings to life types with exaggeration of one trait, it is they who have a hypnotic effect on the mass consciousness. The crowd is in a state akin to a hypnotic trance. Let's call this the trance of the crowd, when individual differences are erased, and the variant of herd behavior becomes dominant. For this reason, the crowd operates only with polar reactions such as adoration/rage. In general, in any meeting, collective emotions become the main ones, while individual behavior is blocked. For example, to achieve the necessary unity of behavior, totalitarian sects try not to leave a person alone with himself.
For the crowd, the main ones are negative emotions. Its positive direction requires skillful conducting, like ceremonial meetings where there is a fairly strict script. The crowd “eats” intermediate arguments, operating only with the goal. There is a corresponding communication rule: “Messages related to goals are better received by the audience than messages that
related to intermediate stages and methods of achieving these goals."* The crowd does not react to complex content.
At the same time, it should be remembered that visual symbols are a form for certain content. Well-chosen content becomes the key to the success of a visual symbol. R.E. Herzstein describes the posters that brought Hitler to power:
“Hitler’s enemies were the embodiment of evil, while Hitler seemed to be an avenging angel who stood up for the desecrated Germany. Posters appeared everywhere - on the walls of buildings, in kiosks, in the windows of party institutions and in the windows of everyone who sympathized with Hitler. Their themes were simple, however appealed to two strong emotions: hatred and idealization"**.
One can also cite V. Kostikov’s opinion about the clearly visualized speeches of the opposition press that most annoyed him. For example: “Yeltsin with a glass, Yeltsin with a bottle, Yeltsin “dancing”, Yeltsin with a plump face after tasting kumis in Kalmykia... All these pictures are well known to us from photographs, and from cartoons, and from mocking ditties in newspapers.” Day" or "Soviet Russia"***.
Visual symbols from different systems interact weakly with each other. Therefore, the city can be decorated with monuments from different eras. Visual symbols themselves generate the context around them.
3. Event organization
There is an important pattern familiar to all influence specialists: not only do people believe what they see more than what they hear, but they also believe events more than words. The reason for this is the same in both cases. A word is always a description of a situation, and when assessing it, we begin to consider it as truth or * Center A.N., Jackson P. Public Relations Practices. - Englewood Cliffs., 1990. - P. 5.
** Hertzstein R.E. The war that Hitler won. - Smolensk, 1996. - P. 257.
*** Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 162.
lie. An event is always reality, that is, always true. Therefore it is more convincing. At the same time, people usually do not think that an event can also be organized and rehearsed. By the way, the American field manual for psychological operations, when talking about organizing a crowd for any purpose, emphasizes that it should appear spontaneous and not organized.
The event should be remembered for its originality. For example, when preparing Boris Yeltsin’s visit to America, he named the state of Montana as the place of visit. “For me, going to Montana,” explains Yeltsin, “is the same as if President Bush, being in Russia, went to Magadan. It would be a shock for everyone. In politics you need to be able to find the zest...”* Another example , remained in the memory of Canadians - B. Yeltsin’s trip to Vancouver S.
Yastrzhembsky recalls: “Boris Nikolayevich amazed everyone when he got off the plane in the pouring rain without an umbrella. Everything looked amazing. At the airport, as expected during an official visit, a guard of honor was lined up. And suddenly Yeltsin gave up his umbrella in the downpour.
There is an alphabet of events that allows you to write the necessary scripts in a fairly technological manner. A stormy meeting, a protracted wait, delight - all these are cubes from which skilled specialists put together the necessary set that allows them to reflect their plans. An event in politics will never be random.
Only the systemic one survives, designed to reflect the characteristics needed at the moment.
The event allows you to “drag” the leader’s inherent characteristics. Therefore, politicians love to discover everything new, cutting ribbons, they love to meet famous people, falling under the aura of their attention. Yeltsin, wearing a red beret and military uniform when visiting troops, reflected the authorities' determination to fight the opposition. The pre-election Yeltsin in a sweater at KVN reflected openness and simplicity, which is a characteristic that “works” for * Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 60.
elections because the population wants to elect someone who can hear about their woes. The event “completes” the image of the politician to its ideal completion. And this is better perceived by the population than a verbal story about the same politician.
An event can also be organized against a particular background, which in turn will influence the interpretation of the event and the behavior of its participants. V. Kostikov recalls B. Yeltsin’s meeting with the chief editors of newspapers. “Subsequently, such meetings were repeated more than once, and at the president’s suggestion they began to be held not in the solemn Catherine Hall, where the walls themselves with their royal gilding seemed to muffle the severity and frankness of the discussion. But in one of the nearest country mansions on Academician Varga Street, in the so-called ABC mansion, meetings with journalists took place here in a fairly relaxed atmosphere with a minimum of protocol conventions. After the official part, the conversation moved to the table and often dragged on."*
N. Khrushchev’s meeting with the creative intelligentsia was based on a similar model.
Mikhail Romm recalled: “Khrushchev stood up and said” that we invited you to talk, they say, but so that the conversation would be more intimate, better, more frank, we will be frank with you, we decided - first let’s have a bite. We’ll have a bite, and then Let's talk"**.
True, the second meeting took place in the hall.
An event is the same type of message as a verbal text. Any event is constructed in accordance with the need to generate information, only in a different way.
The ceremonial assembly reflected reverence, so it granted the right to vote only to a select few. M. Gorbachev's meeting with the people on the street was supposed to symbolize not only new thinking, but also a new type of listening, which previous Soviet leaders did not have.
In conclusion, here is an example of the lengthy conclusions of psychologists regarding President Yeltsin:
“Psychologists talked with assistants, watched videos of various “phenomena” of Yeltsin to the people, wrote * Kostikov V. Roman with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 78.
** Romm M. Oral stories. - M., 1989. - P. 126.
generally reasonable conclusions. They said that Yeltsin should not wave his hand so sharply, he should not sit in front of a television camera with a stony face, it would be good to smile more often, it would be good to show him more with his family, it would be better to speak not on television, but on the radio - and so on and so forth. ..."
They are suitable for any politician who would like to improve his image. Well, for example:
“Speech and behavior should reflect determination to achieve success, confidence in the ability to achieve this, calmness, lack of sharp reaction to malicious attacks and criticism, goodwill towards all who in any constructive way support the Constitution, composure.”*
It follows that the pre-calculated characteristics of the leader must be realized in events specially designed for this case.
4. Mythological organization Myths act as a data bank from which all serious ideas and goals are drawn. Even if we do not admit the existence of certain archetypes, we should agree that a certain set of plots has a high degree of repetition, and a new plot arises based on their existence. Let's take for example an American film, called in the translated version "My Friend Dutch". In it, a rich boy from a divorced family travels across America to visit his mother, accompanied by her lover, whom he hates because he belongs to a different social class. During this journey, he sheds his arrogance and eventually turns away from his rich father. We have before us the plot of "The Prince and the Pauper", in which wealth is associated with a set of not very good qualities. Finding ourselves in real, not hothouse,
Kostikov V. Romance with the President. - M., 1987. - P. 163.*
conditions, the boy has to give up many habits in order to adapt to his new environment. For example, in a canteen for the poor he shares a piece of bread with a little black girl, i.e. begins to show qualities that he did not have before. These qualities take into account the existence of other people who previously did not have access to this boy's world.
The famous film “Home Alone” exploits the mythology “My home is my fortress”; it is the reliance on it that allows a little boy to resist two adult robbers. It is this mythology that sets all the rules of behavior and justifies the plot.
The very idea of a “happy ending” is again mythological, since it sets a clear interpretation of the world: no matter what happens in it, the world still rewards the worthy.
This is a fairly Christian idea, which is why it is so widespread. In addition, the tension created by the film, from a psychological point of view, must be resolved.
The simplicity of American cinema, which often irritates European viewers, at the same time speaks of reaching a level more appropriate for a mass audience.
This is where the box office success of these films comes from. In this regard, cinema acts as a serious indicator of the interests of mass consciousness. The childishness of American adult cinema (such as “Superman”) speaks only of the childishness of the mass audience in its overall quality. If commercial success lay on a different plane, cinema would quickly restructure itself, since it does not dictate its own interests, but reflects the interests of its viewer.
S. Eisenstein believed that the form in art is set by a tendency towards regression, that is, reliance on proven plot patterns, while the content gives a tendency towards progress.
Vyach. Sun. Ivanov formulates S. Eisenstein’s ideas about the main problem of art in the following way, where the search for a combination of the conscious and the deeply sensory is being carried out: “An impact on the viewer or listener is possible only on the condition that the very form of the work is addressed to these deep archaic layers of consciousness. It is inseparable from them and therefore may be subjected to the most severe criticism of those higher strata of consciousness, whose participation in modern art is desirable, but not always feasible"*. The circus, from Eisenstein’s point of view, exploits this sensory component to the maximum, therefore it cannot be loaded with any content.
Any social group begins to “grow” with a common mythology as a result of numerous communicative contacts. Including artificially created identities. For example, the “new community - the Soviet people” had not only an official Soviet mythology, but also an unofficial one, expressed, for example, in the film “The Irony of Fate,” which completely lacked ideological references, which completely contradicted the official layer supported by the state apparatus. The selection of films broadcast on television during the New Year holidays clearly reflects the existence of this “meta-culture” as common to both Russia and Ukraine.
There is a certain genre mythology, an example of which is the detective story.
It takes place under the sign of the mythological confrontation between the villain and the hero, the latter often being realized in the form of a detective or a policeman. The villain, within the framework of the proposed grammar, must win all battles except the last one. In this case, the hero must win a single-handed fight, without resorting to the help of his colleagues. For this reason, the final fight, like many others, is almost indistinguishable from an attack by the villain. We can also highlight the following deviations of the detective from the norm. Firstly, it is involvement in the action, when the viewer/reader practically does not have the opportunity to tear himself away until the last second/last page. We can say that in this case the verbal and, accordingly, discrete text turns into a continuum characteristic of a visual text. W. Eco writes about visual communication: “In the continuum of the iconic sign, we are not able to isolate discrete meaning distinguishers, forever sorting them into shelves”**.
Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Eisenstein’s aesthetics // Ivanov Vyach. Sun. Selected works on semiotics and history * of culture. - T. I. - M., 1998. - P. 287.
** Eco U. Missing structure. Introduction to semiology. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - P. 137.
Secondly, priority is given to different types of signs. If the norm is characterized by signs-symbols, then for the detective, the signs-indexes by which the crime is reconstructed are significant. Thirdly, the detective is more emotionally charged. This kind of text is reflected in its poverty of plot. As a matter of fact, we have the same ratio in such emotionally charged texts as a pop song, which is also characterized by a poor plot. This is probably a general characteristic of popular culture. In summary, we can present these differences in the following table:
norma detective
– – –
Getting into the sphere of such grammar quite clearly sets the possible ways of developing the situation in a detective story, which distinguishes it from other similar genre mythologies.
Mythologems are interesting for a communicator because they are accepted by everyone as a given, without checking for truth. Joining myths can dramatically increase the effectiveness of messages. Thus, the instructional letter “On the procedure for media coverage of events around the Chechen conflict and its information support”* is based on old and current mythologies. For example: “To show that the Russian sovereignty in the person of the disloyal Chechens has an incorrigible enemy, nurtured
Information war in Chechnya. - M.. 1997. - From 89 - 91.*
and supported from abroad and by fascist elements from the CIS countries."
“Choose a derogatory form of presentation when describing enemy leaders, revealing all their primitiveness, embitterment, cruelty and bestial essence.”
“Create information arrays that highlight the power and spirit of the Russian army, the strength of Russian weapons. Reveal the mercantile interests of Chechen militant bandits and their inherent fear.”
There are obvious references here to mythologies that have already been tested many times, which should be revived and applied to a new object.
5. Communication organization As a law of communication technologies, one should recognize the tendency to rely on communication flows already existing in society when issuing messages.
Communication lies at their core, since by making changes in communication they try to achieve changes in behavior due to changes made in the human model of the world. These transitions can be illustrated as follows:
changes in communication changes in the model of the world changes in behavior Having chosen to rely on the types of communication available in society, we naturally move on to the next step - relying on the types of communicators that are most effective for a given audience. This is due to the adopted two-stage communication scheme, when it was discovered that the audience is not only and not so much influenced by the media, but by the subsequent discussion of their news together with “opinion leaders”. The term "key communicators" is used in this sense.
R. Orth suggests distinguishing between “people of prestige” and “key communicators”*.
Both of them have an Orth R.H. Prestigious Persons and Key Communicators // Military Propaganda. Psychological Warfare and Operations. - New York, 1982.
effect on the public, but “people of prestige” are more likely to play the role of “gatekeepers”, determining what news will reach the audience. At the same time, “key communicators” themselves influence the population. Since they are in constant contact with the population, they are better aware of its desires and interests. There are two types of key communicators: those with influence in one area, and those with influence in many areas. The latter types are more typical of traditional types of societies. The list of “key communicators” is specified by the choice of topic in question. But at the same time, for some societies it is possible to compile a list of carriers of such communicative influence. For example, for Thailand the list is as follows (in order of importance): monks, professionals, military, government officials, doctors, merchants. Unlike the older generation, young people follow foreign news more closely.
The general characteristics of a key communicator can be summarized as follows (R. 343):
He is more open to the media and other sources of information; he passes this news on to the group, interpreting it along the way.
Typically, technological innovation processes begin with it.
He takes a more central place in society, more clearly expressing the values of his group. He is more part of the group than people of prestige.
In the field of agriculture, public relations, and medicine, his status is higher than that of others.
He is usually more educated.
He's younger.
From this set of signs it follows that we have before us a younger member of society, who is nevertheless more educated and occupies higher positions. To find key communicators, the following is suggested:
Sociometric method: group members are asked who they would turn to for advice or information.
the experimenter asks the most
Key Communicator Method:
Informed group members who they consider to be key communicators.
Self-determination method: The respondent answers a set of questions to determine whether he or she is a key communicator.
In his other work, R. Orth identifies a number of characteristics of the message source that affect its effectiveness*:
Proximity with the recipient of information. The proximity of the assessments is more important than the proximity of the area in which the impact is achieved. In general, the closer the source and recipient are to each other, the sooner the recipient's change will be achieved. By the way, for this reason, in the theory of negotiations, one of the first rules requires demonstrating the closeness (biography, interests, hobbies, etc.) of the negotiator with the opponent.
Intention. If the intent to persuade is clear, the audience will be suspicious of the message. When conducting psychological operations, it is important to remember that the consumer of information will always strive to attribute intention to the impact of such messages. A possible strategy in this case is to demonstrate that the source has sympathy for the recipient.
Contradiction. It must be such that the possibility of common action is preserved. Therefore, the source must be within the limits acceptable for the recipient of the information.
Credibility. The source must be reliable for the recipient. It may be reliable for the recipient in one situation, but become unreliable in another. This phenomenon should only be analyzed from the audience's point of view.
Expertise. To be effective, the source must have expertise in the area being discussed.
In general, the communication process should proceed in such a way as to enhance those parameters that have * Orth R.H. Source Factors in Persuasion // Ibid.
acting force on the source. R. Cialdini examined such influencing characteristics as titles, clothing and attributes*. Experiments, for example, showed that 95% of nurses automatically followed clearly erroneous doctor's instructions. In terms of clothing, the experimenter, dressed in uniform, had more success when he forced others on the street to comply with some of his demands. For example, the percentage of pedestrians who complied with the demands of a man in uniform was 92%. Prestige cars were considered as an example of an attribute: 50% of drivers waited patiently for such a car to move at a green light, while almost all honked when the same happened to a cheap model in front of them. That is, in a number of situations a person behaves automatically, without thinking, and these situations are of particular interest to the communicator.
The spread of ideas may be subject to the diffusion theory of E. Rogers**. According to it, the critical point of distribution becomes 5% of the population, but in order to convince them, you must reach 50% of the population with your message. When passing 20%, the idea already lives its own life and no longer requires intensive communication support.
E. Rogers proposed six stages through which the process of adapting an idea goes through:
1. Attention.
1. Interest.
3. Evaluation.
4. Check.
5. Adaptation.
6. Recognition.
E. Rogers also identified the following five types of people in relation to the recognition of a new idea or product:
1. Innovators, whose number is 2.5%. They are mobile, have communications beyond the local culture, and are able to recognize abstract ideas.
* Cialdini R. Psychology of influence. - M., 1999.
** According to Center A.H., Jackson P. Public Relation Practices. - Englewood Cliffs, 1990.
2. Early adapters, accounting for 13.5%. This is a respectable group, integrated into the local culture and representing opinion leaders within it.
3. Early minority of 34%. These are the hesitant ones. They embrace new ideas just before the average citizen does.
4. Late majority of 34%. These are the skeptics who decide after the average citizen has done so. Peer pressure is important to him.
5. Late adapters, accounting for 16%. These are traditionalists. They are the last to make a decision and are very suspicious of everything new.
Such distribution is important for the promotion of new goods and services, since their introduction is possible only with the help of certain segments of the population that are more inclined to everything new. There is also a group of people who are fundamentally far from anything new.
It is also necessary to pay attention to the theory of communication systems as a subsection of the theory of communication. Both theories are based on the concept of information asymmetry, but its use is different. Information asymmetry brings to life communication so that as a result of its communication, the knowledge of the source and recipient is equalized. In principle, we can talk about a communicative unit precisely in the aspect when the decision of one individual is carried out by another, that is, when there is a transition between two systems. Communication is always an inter-level transfer of information.
At the same time, we talk about a communication system as a system in which information asymmetry is maintained. For example, text is such a closed communication system. It can be considered as a certain accumulation of communicative disturbances, due to which its own rules of behavior begin to operate within its framework.
Communication systems are interested in means of creating and maintaining information asymmetry. In the text this will be: permitted and prohibited behavior options for heroes, typical characteristics of a hero/antihero, a typical ending, a typical ending (for example, a happy end). Text is an artificially maintained asymmetry within a certain space. Therefore, text researchers attach special importance to the concept of its frames and boundaries. The consumer of information is interested in information asymmetry - cf. returning to the same text, rereading the text.
Communication systems can be divided into monological and dialogical. In the first case, the generation of a message occurs in one place; the most important thing for the system is the “purity” of communication channels so that the message reaches its destination without interference. The consumer has no right to evade the execution of the order contained in the message. When the message reaches him, an automatic response follows.
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