Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Biblical history of the creation of the kingdom of Israel Where was the creation of the kingdom of Israel

The Hebrew kingdom described in the Bible existed in the 11th-10th centuries. BC e. The reigns of kings Saul, David and Solomon date back to this period. Under them, the Jewish people lived in a single powerful

Age of Judges

The history of Palestine in those distant times is associated with many myths and legends, the veracity of which continues to be debated by historians and researchers of ancient sources. The Hebrew kingdom is best known for its Old Testament, which describes the events of the era.

Before the emergence of a unified state, the Jews lived under the leadership of judges. They were elected from among the most authoritative and wise members of society, but did not have actual power, but only resolved internal conflicts between residents. At the same time, the Jews were in constant danger emanating from aggressive nomadic neighbors. The main threat was the Philistines.

Election of Saul as king

Around 1029 BC. e. The concerned people demanded that the prophet Samuel (one of the judges) elect the most worthy candidate as king. The sage initially dissuaded his fellow tribesmen, convincing them that the power of the military leader would turn into dictatorship and terror. Nevertheless, the common people groaned from the invasions of enemies and continued to insist on their own.

Finally, according to the Bible, Samuel turned to God for advice, who replied that the young man Saul from the tribe of Benjamin should become king. This was the most insignificant of the Jewish families. Soon the prophet brought the challenger to the thirsty people. Then it was decided to confirm the correctness of the king’s choice. He did point to Saul. This is how the Hebrew Kingdom appeared.

Prosperity of Israel

The early years of Saul's reign were a time of relief for all his people. The military leader gathered and organized an army that was able to protect the fatherland from enemies. During armed conflicts, the kingdoms of Ammon, Moab and Idumea were defeated. The confrontation with the Philistines was especially fierce.

The Emperor was distinguished by his religiosity. He dedicated every victory to God, without whom, in his opinion, the Hebrew kingdom would have perished long ago. The history of his wars against his neighbors is described in detail in the Bible. The character of young Saul is also revealed there. He was not only a religious man, but also a very humble man. In his free time from power, the sovereign himself cultivated the field, showing that he was no different from the inhabitants of his country.

Conflict between the king and the prophet

After one of the campaigns, a quarrel occurred between Saul and Samuel. Its cause was the blasphemous act of the king. On the eve of the battle with the Philistines, he himself made a sacrifice, while he had no right to do so. Only the clergy, or rather Samuel, could do this. A rift occurred between the king and the prophet, which became the first signal of the onset of difficult times.

Samuel, who left the court, became disillusioned with Saul. He decided that he had put the wrong person on the throne. God (whose remarks are often found in the Bible) agreed with the clergyman and offered him a new candidate. This was young David, whom Samuel secretly anointed to reign.

David

The young man had many talents and amazing traits. He was an excellent warrior and musician. His abilities became known at the king's court. Saul at this time began to suffer from attacks of melancholy. The priests advised him to treat this illness with the help of music. So David appeared at court, playing the harp for the ruler.

Soon the king's close associate glorified himself with another feat. David joined the Israeli army when another war against the Philistines began. In the enemy camp, the most terrible warrior was Goliath. This descendant of giants had gigantic height and strength. David challenged him to a personal duel and defeated him with the help of his agility and sling. As a sign of victory, the young man cut off the head of the defeated giant. This episode is one of the most famous and quoted in the entire Bible.

The victory over Goliath made David the favorite of the people. A conflict arose between him and Saul, which escalated into a civil war that shook the Hebrew kingdom. At the same time, the Philistines were again operating in Palestine. They defeated Saul's army, and he himself committed suicide, not wanting to be captured by the enemy.

New king

So in 1005 BC. e. David became king. While still at Saul's court, he married his daughter, thus becoming the monarch's son-in-law. It was under David that the capital of the Hebrew kingdom was moved to Jerusalem, which since then has become the heart of all national life. The new sovereign patronized urban planning and the improvement of the provinces.

The location of the Hebrew Kingdom at that time remains a matter of debate. If we refer to the Bible, we can assume that the borders of Israel ran from Gaza to the banks of the Euphrates. Like other rulers of the Hebrew kingdom, David waged successful wars against his neighbors. The nomads were driven back from the borders over and over again when they launched another campaign with looting and bloodshed.

However, not all of David's reign was cloudless and calm. The country again had to go through a civil war. This time, David’s own son Absalom rebelled against the central government. He encroached on his father's throne, although he had no right to it. In the end, his army was defeated, and the prodigal son himself was killed by the king's servants, which was contrary to the king's orders.

Solomon

When David grew old and decrepit, the question of succession to the throne arose again. The king wanted to transfer power to one of his younger sons, Solomon: he was distinguished by his wisdom and abilities in government. The other eldest son, Adonij, did not like his father’s choice. He even tried to organize a coup d'etat, scheduling his own coronation during the life of his incapacitated father.

However, Adonijah's attempt failed. Because of his cowardice, he fled to the Tabernacle. Solomon forgave his brother after his repentance. At the same time, other participants in the conspiracy from among officials and associates were executed. The kings of the Hebrew Kingdom firmly held power in their hands.

Construction of the Jerusalem Temple

After the death of David, the actual reign of Solomon began (965-928 BC). This was the heyday of the Hebrew Kingdom. The country was reliably protected from external threats and steadily developed and grew rich.

Solomon's main act was the construction of the Jerusalem Temple - the main shrine of Judaism. This religious building symbolized the unification of the entire people. David did a lot of work preparing the materials and creating the plan. Shortly before his death, he handed over all the papers to his son.

Solomon began construction in the fourth year of his reign. He turned to the king of Tire for help. Famous and talented architects came from there and supervised the direct work on the construction of the temple. The main religious building of the Jews became part of the royal palace. It was located on a mountain called the Temple. On the day of consecration in 950 BC. e. The main national relic, the Ark of the Covenant, was moved into the building. The Jews celebrated the completion of construction for two weeks. The temple became the center of religious life, where pilgrims flocked from all Jewish provinces.

Death of Solomon in 928 BC. e. put an end to the prosperity of a single state. The sovereign's successors divided the state among themselves. Since then, there has been a northern kingdom (Israel) and a southern kingdom (Judah). The era of Saul, David and Solomon is considered the golden age of the entire Jewish people.

The Israeli state, compared to the empires of that time, was small and did not last long.

However, the ancestral home of the Israeli people became a powerful spiritual and political symbol for the Jews, helping them survive the centuries-long exile and dispersal around the world that followed the death of their kingdom.

Ancient Israel

The Bible describes how Moses led the Jews from captivity in Egypt to the “promised land” of Canaan - between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea.

There they lived in tribes until they were united by the first king Saul (reigned 1020-1006 BC).

David became the next king of Israel (1006-995 BC). He conquered the city of Jebus, gave it a new name and placed the Ark of the Covenant there, making the city the political and religious center of the Israelites.

David's son Solomon (965-928 BC) built a majestic Temple in Jerusalem, which was decorated with gold and bronze decorations. In order to pay for construction, the king inflated, and his son Rehoboam continued his tough financial policy.

Not wanting to put up with such a heavy burden, the northern tribes separated from the kingdom, and two states were formed - Israel in the north and Judah in the south.

Meanwhile, the warlike Assyrians who lived in the Tigris River valley began to seriously threaten other peoples of Mesopotamia. The Assyrians had a powerful army, which used innovations such as siege weapons and chain mail armor.

In 721 BC. e. The Assyrians captured Israel, weakened by internal strife. Judah survived the defeat and remained to exist as a vassal of the great Babylonian Empire, the second of the great powers of Mesopotamia.

In 598 BC. e. Judah rebelled against Babylonian rule, but the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II suppressed the uprising. Ten years later, Nebuchadnezzar's troops occupied Jerusalem, destroyed the city and the Temple, and resettled thousands of Jews to Babylon.

Babylon was a magnificent city, but for the exiles the captivity was a difficult ordeal. Therefore, they greeted with delight the defeat of the Babylonian state by the Persians (539 BC) under the leadership of Cyrus the Great.

Having come to power in Babylon, Cyrus allowed the Jews to return to their homeland, which became part of his empire. Some returned home, but others remained in Babylon and, marking the beginning of the dispersion (diaspora) of the Jewish people, which continues to this day.

Temple of Solomon

According to the description in the Book of Kings, the Temple, built by Solomon in Jerusalem to store the Ark of the Covenant, consisted of three rooms: the porch, the sanctuary and the Holy of Holies, where the Ark was located.

First Temple (Solomon's Temple)

King David extended his power over a wide area, but ca. 925 BC e. it was divided into two states: Israel (in the north) with its capital Samaria and Judea (in the south) with its capital Jerusalem.

Ark of the Covenant

The Ark of the Covenant was a box made of “shittim” (acacia) wood and gold, decorated with two carved images of cherubim and equipped with a pair of long pole handles for carrying.

According to the Bible, God gave Moses precise instructions on how to make a repository for the tablets where the Ten Commandments were written. When the Israelites went to war, the ark was always carried with the army; it served as the highest object of religious worship, and was also believed to have the ability to kill people.

Ark of the Covenant

King David brought the ark to Jerusalem, where it was subsequently kept in the Temple built by David's son Solomon. After the Babylonians in 586 BC. e. captured Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple, the ark disappeared.

Although the hero of the film "Indiana Jones: Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981) finds the Ark of the Covenant, in fact, no one knows anything for certain about its location and general existence.

Briefly about the Kingdom of Israel

Below is a table with the main dates of the ancient Kingdom of Israel.

Years BC	Event
1220	Jews (Israelites) settle in Canaan.
1550	The Israelites live in tribes led by elders—“judges” in the biblical tradition.
1020	Saul becomes the first king of the Israelites.
1006	David becomes the ruler of Judah, and then the entire kingdom of Israel. He makes Jerusalem his capital.
965	Solomon becomes king. He imposes high taxes and due to this maintains a luxurious courtyard and erects impressive buildings.
950	Solomon builds the Temple in Jerusalem.
930	The Assyrian Empire becomes the dominant power in the Tigris Valley.
928	Rehoboam, son of Solomon, becomes king and faces the discontent of the northern tribes. “My father punished you with whips,” he says to the dissatisfied, “and I will beat you with scorpions.”
925	The northern tribes rebel, separate from Judah and create their own kingdom of Israel.
924	Invasion of Judah and Israel by the troops of Pharaoh Shoshenq I.
854	Israel is involved in a military alliance against Assyria. After the Battle of Karkar, the Assyrians temporarily stopped their conquests.
841	Israel begins to pay tribute to Assyria.
732	The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III captures Damascus. For 17 years, Assyria makes its vassals not only Israel and Judea, but also Babylon.
724	Hoshea, king of Israel, rebels against Assyrian rule.
721	The Assyrians take control of Samaria, the capital of Israel.
612	Death of the Assyrian Empire.
600	Formation of the Neo-Babylonian (2nd Babylonian) kingdom.
586	After a long siege, the troops of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II capture and destroy Jerusalem; its inhabitants are transferred to Babylon.
539	Cyrus II the Great defeats the Chaldeans, captures Babylon and allows the Jews to return to their homeland.
515	A new Temple was built in the revived Jerusalem.

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At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. the state of affairs in Palestine was determined by three forces - Israel, Judea and Philistia. All of them have their roots in the Late Bronze Age.

The Israeli tribal union survived at the end of the 13th century. serious changes. Its core was defeated by the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah, driven out of Palestine and possibly disintegrated. Another group

Israelis settled in Egypt even earlier, but at the end of the 13th century. left this country and settled in Sinai, which is reflected in the Hebrew legend about the Exodus from Egypt. During the troubled times of the Eastern Mediterranean at the turn of the XIII-XII centuries. BC e. Israeli groups reunited (apparently with considerable cultural and organizational hegemony of the expelled Egyptians) and re-invaded Palestine from across the Jordan. Subsequently, Hebrew tradition associated the Exodus and the new formation of the Israeli tribal union with Moses, and the invasion of Palestine with Joshua.

In the 12th century. BC e. Israel was finally formed in Palestine as a union of twelve tribes. Elected leaders - "shofet" ("judges") were high priests, commanded tribal militias, and in peacetime they handled litigation. The cult of Israel at this time undoubtedly bore the usual pagan character. By this time, they had accepted Yahweh, the local pre-Israelite deity of one of the mountainous areas of Southern Palestine, as the supreme god.

At the beginning of the 11th century. BC e. In Palestine, the military hegemony of the Philistines was established, they were leaders in iron metallurgy, and therefore in the production of weapons. The Israeli tribal system has demonstrated its inability to resist. In the fight against the Philistines, successful military leaders or simply robbers emerge, placing themselves outside traditional tribal relations. One of them, Saul, was elected by the Israeli tribes as the first king of Israel, i.e., a supra-tribal hereditary ruler (late 11th century BC); as usual, the establishment of royal power was energetically supported by the bulk of the tribes despite the resistance of the aristocracy. Saul appointed his associates as commanders of thousands and centurions of the army, allocated fields and vineyards, which led to the emergence of a serving nobility. However, Saul turned out to be an unsuccessful commander and, having suffered a crushing defeat from the Philistines, threw himself on the sword.

His son-in-law David (c. 1000-965 BC) became king, pursuing a policy of creating a centralized monarchy. Under him, Jerusalem was annexed, becoming the capital of the new kingdom. For management

The country formed a central state apparatus, headed by a supreme dignitary. Under the king, a personally loyal guard was created from foreign mercenaries - Cretans and Philistines. Strong discontent was caused by David's order to conduct a general census of the population for the purpose of taxation. An even greater murmur was caused by the introduction of a rule according to which everyone who appeared in front of the king, from ordinary subjects to military leaders and princes, had to “fall with their faces on the ground.” David's foreign policy was quite successful. He made peace with the Philistines, and territorial acquisitions in the south advanced the borders of the state to the Gulf of Aqaba.

David was succeeded by his youngest son Solomon (c. 965-928 BC). Tradition praises him for his wisdom, portrays him as a shrewd and fair judge, and declares him the author of a number of literary works included in the Bible. In reality, Solomon was a power-hungry and vain monarch who inherited the despotic habits of his father, and did not hesitate to eliminate people who stood in his way.

During Solomon's reign, much attention was paid to construction activities. The desolate Canaanite cities were restored and new ones were founded, palaces were built. In honor of the god Yahweh, Solomon erected a luxuriously decorated temple in Jerusalem. For the construction of all these buildings, the Tyrian king Ahiram sent Solomon the best craftsmen and artists, as well as building materials. For this, Solomon supplied Ahiram with grain and olive oil and ceded him twenty cities.

The wide scope of construction activities and the maintenance of the yard required large amounts of money, and therefore the government resorted to increased taxation. The territory of the Kingdom of Israel and Judah was divided into 12 districts, and each of them supplied food to the king for one month of the year. Labor conscription was introduced. First it affected the conquered Canaanite-Amorite population, and then the Israelites, who had to work for four months a year on the royal construction work.

By the end of Solomon's reign, the foreign policy situation of his state became more complicated. A strong Damascus kingdom arose on the northern border. Most of the tribes fell away from Judah and formed the new kingdom of Israel. Its capital somewhat later (in the 9th century BC) was the newly founded city of Samaria. The Davidic dynasty continued to rule in the southern part of the country (in the Kingdom of Judah), retaining the capital Jerusalem.

Egypt took advantage of the weakening and fragmentation of the country. Pharaoh Shoshenq around 925 BC. e. made a devastating campaign in Palestine, ruining not only the Kingdom of Judah, but also the Kingdom of Israel. However, the weakening of Egypt under Shoshenq's successors prevented the restoration of its former dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.

After the prophet Moses led 600 thousand Jews out of Egypt, he led his people through the desert for 40 years, until three generations passed, he waited for those who were slaves to die. It was the generations of Jews who did not know slavery that had to defend their right to own the fertile land in a long struggle. In today's lesson we will get acquainted with the history of the Hebrew Kingdom.

Background

Freed from Egyptian captivity (see lesson), the Jews wandered for a long time before ending up in Palestine. Palestine is a country in the Jordan Valley, according to biblical tradition, promised to the Jews by God. To gain a foothold in this land, the Jews had to fight long wars.

Events

XI century BC - emergence of the kingdom of Israel. Jews become a settled people.

Wars with the Philistines. Old Testament traditions relating to this period:

Samson and Delilah: the Old Testament describes the hero Samson, who fought with the Philistines and whom no one could defeat until he discovered a secret - supernatural power was concentrated in the uncut hair of the Philistine Delilah, whom he fell in love with. Delilah betrayed Samson by revealing his secret to the Philistines.
: a legend about the duel between the young shepherd David and the Philistine giant Goliath, whom David killed with a stone thrown from a sling.

X century BC - David conquers Jerusalem, which becomes the capital of the Hebrew kingdom.

Participants

Conclusion

The reign of King Solomon is considered the heyday of the Hebrew kingdom. After his death, the united Hebrew kingdom splits into Judah and Israel.

More than 3 thousand years ago, Jews came to the blessed land promised by God. The wide valley of the Jordan River was rich in pastures and fertile. However, for these lands they had to wage grueling wars with the local population. The Bible preserves a legend about how the Jews captured the city of Jericho, destroying its powerful walls with the sound of trumpets.

Biblical stories reflected the struggle of the Israelites with the Philistines. The mighty hero Samson, whose strength was in his hair, fell in love with the beautiful Delilah (Fig. 1). The Philistine rulers bribed Delilah. When Samson fell asleep, the treacherous woman ordered his hair to be cut off. Samson was captured, blinded and thrown into prison. After some time, the Philistines held a feast and brought blind, tormented Samson there to mock the hero. But they did not notice that the hair had grown back and Samson’s strength had returned. The hero grabbed the pillars that supported the roof with his hands and brought down a huge house on his enemies. This is how Samson died, having accomplished his last feat.

At the turn of the XI-X centuries. BC e. in the north of Palestine, Jews formed the state of Israel (Fig. 2). According to legend, the founder and first king was Saul.

Rice. 2. Kingdom of Saul ()

One day the Philistines went to war against Saul. And a huge Goliath emerged from their ranks. Only David, a young shepherd boy, dared to fight the giant. David struck the huge giant with a well-aimed sling throw. Goliath fell to the ground, and David snatched his sword and cut off his head (Fig. 3).

Rice. 3. David and Goliath ()

After Saul's death, David became king (1005-965 BC). During his reign, Jerusalem became the capital of the state.

After David, his son Solomon ascended the throne. The reign of Solomon (965-928 BC) is called the “golden age” of the Hebrew state. He was considered a wise ruler. Biblical legends tell of the fair trial of Solomon. One day, two women who had given birth to boys approached him. One of them accidentally crushed a child in her sleep and in the morning replaced it with a neighbor’s living child. Each of the women claimed that the living child was her son. Solomon ordered the guard to cut the baby into pieces and give half of each. One of the women agreed to this, and the other said: “It’s better to give the child to her, just don’t kill him!” She was the boy's mother. From those times the expression “Solomon’s decision” came about, which means a wise decision.

Solomon expanded the territory of the state, capturing neighboring lands. Powerful defensive walls were built around Jerusalem, Megiddo and other cities. A majestic royal palace and a temple to the god Yahweh were built in the capital (Fig. 4). The walls of the temple were made of cedar, and the floors were made of cypress wood. The best craftsmen made jewelry from silver and gold for the temple. In the middle of the large courtyard stood an altar to the god Yahweh. In the depths of the temple there was a small room in which stone tablets with commandments were kept.

Rice. 4. Temple of the god Yahweh ()

During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem became the political and religious capital of the Jews.

References

Vigasin A. A., Goder G. I., Sventsitskaya I. S. History of the Ancient World. 5th grade. - M.: Education, 2006.
Nemirovsky A.I. A book for reading on the history of the Ancient World. - M.: Education, 1991.

Additional precommended links to Internet resources

History of wars of the Ancient World ().
Saba34.narod.ru ().
Piratyy.narod.ru ().
Jerusalem ().

Homework

Determine the location of the Hebrew Kingdom.
What do the expressions “Trumpets of Jericho” and “Solomon’s decision” mean?
Tell us about biblical heroes.
What was King Solomon famous for?

In all likelihood, Israel arose in the north of the Judean Highlands towards the end of the 13th century. BC as a local Canaanite tribal association, which in the 12th century. BC a number of Semitic refugees from Egypt poured in, bringing with them legends about their origin from the Amorite ancestor Seth (Seth), life in Egypt, flight from it and the conclusion of a covenant with the Midian god of the sandstorm Yahweh on the way from Egypt to Canaan. Apart from these traditions introduced from outside, the people of Israel remained Canaanite in their culture and religion and continued to speak the dialect of the Canaanite language, from which the Hebrew language eventually developed.

According to Deuteronomic history, ca. 1000 BC The Israeli tribes united and created a powerful state with its capital in Jerusalem, led by King David. David was succeeded on the throne by his son Solomon, under whom Israel achieved incredible political, economic, military and cultural prosperity. After the death of Solomon, unrest began, as a result of which ten northern tribes emerged from the control of Jerusalem, forming a separate kingdom of Israel proper. However, the existence of the power of David and Solomon is refuted by archaeological data, which does not reveal any traces of developed statehood in the Judean Highlands in the 10th century. BC The contradictions between the EB statements and archaeological data are especially clear in the example of Jerusalem. In the city, which, according to the Deuteronomic historian, was the fabulously rich capital of a huge empire, archaeologists find nothing but shards of primitive pottery.

Archaeological evidence is supported by written data. The existence of the power of David and Solomon is not noted in any contemporary text. For example, the Egyptian pharaoh Shoshenq I (940-920 BC) in an inscription from the Karnak Temple talks about his military campaign in Canaan. The same campaign is reported in the Hebrew Bible, which is the first mention in it of a historical event confirmed by an external source: “In the fifth year of Rehoboam’s reign, Shusakim (šišaq), king of Egypt, rose up against Jerusalem and took the treasures of the house of Yahweh and the treasures of the king’s house. I took everything; He also took all the golden shields that Solomon had made” (3 Kings 14:25-26). Moreover, in Shoshenq’s own inscription, which lists the 150 cities he took in Canaan, Jerusalem is not present. The closest city mentioned by the Egyptian pharaoh is Gibeon, located 10 km north of Jerusalem. It would be very strange if, when listing many small cities, Shoshenq did not mention the capital of a powerful kingdom that he took, which, according to EB, was Jerusalem. The reason for the strange forgetfulness of the Egyptian ruler is that in fact Jerusalem in his time was only an insignificant poor settlement that governed only its immediate surroundings. The “United Kingdom” of David and Solomon is nothing more than a fiction of later Jewish authors, who sought to use it to substantiate Jerusalem’s claims to power over all Jewish lands.

Inscription from the Karnak Temple about the campaign of Pharaoh Shoshenq to Canaan with a list of captured cities

Judging by archaeological data, the first Jewish state was the Kingdom of Israel, which arose at the end of the 10th century. BC Its emergence was supposedly facilitated by the campaign of Shoshenq, which undermined the strength of the rich and developed Canaanite cities of the Jezreel Valley, which allowed the inhabitants of “Mount Ephraim” to take possession of them. According to Deuteronomic history, the first king of Israel was Jeroboam from the tribe of Ephraim, to whom tradition attributes the founding of the main Israelite sanctuaries at Bethel and Dan. The first capital of the Kingdom of Israel was in Shechem, then it moved to Tirzah. Finally, ok. 880 BC Omri (Omri), who seized the royal throne, moved the capital to Samaria. Omri became the true founder of the Israeli great power - even after the death of his dynasty, the Assyrians called Israel the “house of Omri” and the Israeli kings “the sons of Omri.” Omri is also mentioned in an inscription by the 9th century Moabite king Mesha. BC

The Omri dynasty ruled Israel for about four decades. The time of her reign includes monumental buildings in the capital of the kingdom of Samaria, the second royal residence - Jezreel, as well as in Gezer, Hazor and Megiddo, which were previously attributed to Solomon. Omri was replaced on the throne by his son Ahab, who married the daughter of the Tyrian king Ethbaal (Ephbaal) Jezebel, with whose name Deuteronomic historians associate the conflict between the supporters of Baal and Yahweh. Under Ahab, the kingdom of Israel first appears in Mesopotamian sources. In 853 BC. The Assyrian king Shalmaneser III made a campaign to the west. Near the city of Karkara on the Orontes River, his battle took place with a coalition of Syrian and Canaanite kings, in which the monolith of Shalmaneser III of Carkh mentions “2,000 chariots and 10,000 infantry of Ahab the Israelite (A-ha-ab-bu MATSir-ila-a-a).” Shalmaneser claims victory in the battle, but after it the Assyrians had to retreat.

Ahab was succeeded on the throne of Israel by his sons Ahaziah and then Joram. The reign of Jehoram includes the war of Israel against Moab, described both in EB (2 Kings 3:4-27) and in the inscription of the Moabite king Mesha. Mesha (mš‘ - “Savior”) reports that for the sins of Moab, G-d Kemosh allowed the king of Israel Omri (‘mry mlk yśr’l) to oppress Moab for many years. The oppression continued under Omri's unnamed son. Kemosh then ordered Mesha to go to war. The Moabite king defeated the Israelites and captured several cities from them, including in the city of Nebo, he took the “vessels of Yahweh” ([k]ly yhwh) and brought them before the face of the god Kemosh. This message contains the oldest definite reference to Yahweh outside of the Hebrew Bible. Mesha declares that Kemosh “saved me from all kings” (hš‘ny mkl hmlkn), and “Israel perished forever with destruction” (yśr’l ’bd ’bd ‘lm). The 2nd Book of Kings reports that Mesha was a tributary of Israel, but after the death of Ahab he broke away from him. The Israeli king Joram, in alliance with the Jewish king Jehoshaphat, went to war against Moab. At first he was successful, but after Mesha sacrificed his firstborn son as a burnt offering, the Israelites were struck with fear and fled.

During the 9th century. BC Israel also fought bitter wars with the Aramean kingdom of Damascus. OK. 842 BC Hazael seized the throne in Damascus. Probably, Joram decided to take this opportunity to return the city of Ramoth Gilead, which had previously been taken from him by the Syrians. Having united with the Judah king Ahaziah, he opposed Hazael, but in the battle with him he was wounded and brought for treatment to the royal residence of Jezreel. At this time, a mutiny occurred in the Israeli army remaining with Ramoth-gilead. Jehu (Yahu) who seized power killed Joram and his mother Jezebel and destroyed all his brothers and other relatives. He also killed the king of Judah, Ahaziah, who was in Jezreel at that time, and his brothers, who were going to visit him. In addition, the Deuteronomic historian attributes to Jehu the destruction of all the priests and servants of Baal in the kingdom of Israel, but this message is highly doubtful.

A fragmentary Aramaic inscription found in the city of Dan is supposedly associated with the death of the Omri dynasty. Its author, who is not named (the Syrian king Hazael?) reports that he killed<…>rm.br.<…>/ mlk.ysr’l.w<…> <…>yhw.br<…> / <…>k.bytdwd.w’<…>, which can be reconstructed as “[Joram] the son of [Ahab,] king of Israel, and [Ahozi] the son of [Joram, king] of the house of David.” If the bytdwd in this inscription truly means "house of David", this is the first mention of David (or more precisely the dynasty of David) outside the Hebrew Bible. It is noteworthy that if the author of this inscription is Hazael, he attributes the murder of the kings of Israel and Judah to himself, while EB attributes it to Jehu. Perhaps the usurper acted as a Syrian agent, which gave Azail the right to consider his act his own.

Jehu is referred to as mIa-ú-a DUMU mHu-um-ri-i ("Jehu, son of Omri") and is depicted among the slaves of Assyria on Shalmaneser III's "Black Obelisk" of Nimrud, dating to approximately 825 BC. The Assyrian king reports about him: “Tribute to Yehu the son of Omri: I received from him silver, gold, a golden cup, a golden vase with a sharp bottom, golden glasses, golden ladles, tin, a royal staff, spears.” The “zeal of Jehu for Yahweh” praised by Deuteronomic authors, which prompted him, according to EB, to organize an orgy of bloody terror in Israel, did not bring him any foreign policy benefits. On the contrary, in addition to the fact that Israel lost its independence from Assyria, which Ahab, cursed by the Deuteronomists, managed to defend, during the reign of Jehu and his son Jehoahaz, he continued to suffer military defeats from Syria and lose his lands to it. The situation changed only under Jehu’s grandson Joash, but the reason for this was not the latter’s Yahwist piety, but the intensified Assyrian attack on Syria.

Israeli king Jehu kneeling before Assyrian king Shalmaneser III
Image on the Black Obelisk

In 796 BC. The Assyrian king Adad-Nirari III besieged Damascus and forced its ruler Bar-Hadad (Benhadad) III to capitulate. Joash of Israel took advantage of the weakening of Syria and returned to Israel the cities previously captured by the Syrians. He also defeated and captured the Jewish king Amaziah, took Jerusalem and plundered the royal palace and temple of Yahweh. The forty-year reign of Joash's son Jeroboam II (780-740 BC) marked the last heyday of the Kingdom of Israel, marked by material prosperity, the flourishing of monumental construction and the widespread spread of writing. Jeroboam II is the first king of Israel whose name is attested by an inscription on a seal (belonging to “Shema the servant of Jeroboam”).

Jeroboam's son Zechariah was killed 6 months after his accession to the throne of Israel, ending the dynasty of Jehu. The usurper Shallum was soon himself killed by Menachem, who ruled for ten years. To maintain his power, he was forced to pay huge tribute to Assyria. Menachem's son Pekahia (Phakiah), after two years of reign, was killed by his military leader Pekahia (Phakiah). In 732 BC. Pekah entered into an anti-Assyrian alliance with the king of Damascus Rezin, in response to which Tiglath-Pileser III defeated Syria, killed Rezin and annexed his possessions to Assyria, and also forced Pekah to surrender and annexed the northern regions of the Kingdom of Israel. Shortly after these events, Pekah was killed by Hoshea (Hoshea), who initially acted as a loyal vassal of Assyria, but then entered into an alliance with Egypt and stopped paying tribute to the Assyrians. This prompted punitive measures by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser V, who took Hosea captive and besieged Samaria. The capital of Israel fell three years later, under the new ruler of Assyria, Sargon II. The entire territory of the Kingdom of Israel was included in Assyria, a significant part of its population was deported, and settlers from other Assyrian regions were transferred to its place.

Somewhat earlier than these events, in the middle of the 8th century. BC, there are signs of the transformation of Judea into a full-fledged state. Up to this point, it was more of a backward tribal association, located in the shadow of the much stronger and more developed kingdom of Israel. In terms of population, Judah's ratio to Israel was approximately 1 to 10, and the same can be said about other indicators. Israelite King Joash, c. 800 BC who took and plundered Jerusalem, figuratively expressed this balance of power between the two Jewish states, comparing in his message to the Jewish king Amaziah Israel with the “cedar of Lebanon”, and Judah with the “thorn of Lebanon”, which was trampled by wild animals (2 Kings 14:9) . The situation changed decisively under the Jewish king Ahaz (743-727), who in the war between Assyria and Israel sided with Assyria, recognizing himself as a slave of Tiglath-Pileser III. In one of the inscriptions of Tiglath-Pilesar there is the earliest mention of Judea outside the Great Britain - the Assyrian ruler names among his tributaries Ya-ú-ha-zi MATYa-ú-da-a, i.e. "Ahaz of Judah."

With the support of the Jews, the Assyrians in 732 BC. defeated the Kingdom of Israel and deprived it of its northern regions, and in 720 BC. took Samaria and incorporated the remainder of Israelite territory into Assyria. If for Israel these events turned out to be a disaster, for Judea they, on the contrary, became a gift of fate. In the last years of the reign of Ahaz and the first years of the reign of his son Hezekiah (727-698), the kingdom of Judah experienced incredible prosperity. Jerusalem, which previously occupied only a small area of the City of David and the Temple Mount, spreads to the western hill and is surrounded (for the first time since the Middle Bronze Age) by new fortress walls. Within one generation, its population experiences explosive growth - approximately 10 times (from 1 to 10 thousand). A similar population explosion is observed in the agricultural district of Jerusalem and other areas of Judea.

Much of Judah's rise was due to the flight of Israel's population to the south, but the economic boom that followed the integration of the kingdom of Judah into the economy of the Assyrian superpower also played a role. Judea became a supplier of olive oil and wine to the imperial market, and lucrative Arabian caravan trade routes ran along its southern border. The fertile Shephelah valley serves as the granary of Judea, the main city of which Lachish became the second most important city of the state after Jerusalem in the second half of the 8th century. BC decorated with monumental administrative buildings and surrounded by powerful fortifications. Mass production of ceramics for state needs takes place in centralized workshops.

From the middle of the 8th century. BC In Judea, personal seals with the names of the owners, inscribed stone scales and ostracons appear for the first time, indicating the spread of writing, which is one of the main signs of developed statehood. After the destruction of the sanctuaries of the Kingdom of Israel (Dan, Bethel, Samaria, etc.), Jerusalem, which was previously only one of many Jewish religious centers, becomes the main center of Yahwism. This was also facilitated by the “religious reform” of King Hezekiah, which apparently consisted in the abolition of all Yahwist sanctuaries outside the capital of Judah. Probably in the last years of the reign of Ahaz, with the assistance of the Assyrians, a new temple to Yahweh was built in Jerusalem, described in the Bible as “the temple of Solomon.”

However, this heyday did not last long. In 705 BC. The Assyrian king Sargon II died in battle with the Cimmerians, after which uprisings of the conquered peoples broke out on the territory of the Assyrian Empire. The Jewish king Hezekiah also rebelled, joining the anti-Assyrian coalition of Canaanite states under the auspices of Egypt. Hezekiah probably prepared for such a development in advance, as evidenced by his creation of reserves of grain, olive oil and wine and the construction of a tunnel from the source of Siloam, which provided Jerusalem with water in case of a siege. Having suppressed the uprisings in the south and east of his power, the son of Sargon II Sennacherib in 701 BC. set out on a campaign to the west.

The Assyrian army led to the submission of the Phoenicians and Philistines, after which it entered Judea and subjected its territory to a terrible defeat. According to the annals of Sennacherib, he captured forty-five Jewish cities and carried away two hundred thousand men and women along with their livestock. The largest city of Judea after Jerusalem, Lachish, which offered stubborn resistance to the Assyrian king, was completely destroyed, its population was destroyed or deported by the Assyrians. Details of the siege and capture of Lachish were depicted in bas-reliefs made for the palace of Sennacherib in Nineveh, which are currently kept in the British Museum.

Jewish prisoners from Lachish before Sennacherib
Bas-relief from the royal palace in Nineveh

The king of Judah, Hezekiah Sennacherib, was locked up in Jerusalem “like a bird in a cage” and forced to capitulate and pay a huge tribute, including the king’s daughters for his harem: “Along with 30 talents of gold, 800 talents of choice silver, antimony, large jewelry made of stone, boxes of ivory, high ivory thrones, elephant skins, ivory, ebony, boxwood - all that there is, noble wealth, also his daughters, the concubines of his palace, singers and singers to Nineveh, my capital, he sent for me , and sent his messenger to pay the tribute and perform the service” (Annals of Sennacherib). Jerusalem was saved from capture and complete destruction, apparently, by the approach of the army of the Nubian crown prince of Egypt Taharqa (“Tirgak, king of Ethiopia”), about whom Sennacherib was reported during the siege of Jerusalem: “Behold, he has come out to fight you” (2 Kings . 19, 9). Contrary to the predictions of the prophet Isaiah about the uselessness of Egyptian help (2 Kings 30, 2-7; 31, 1-3, etc.), it was the appearance of the Egyptians (or rather, the black Nubians who then ruled Egypt) that saved Jerusalem from destruction.

Black Nubian Taharqa - G-d who saved Jerusalem from destruction by Sennacherib

However, otherwise the consequences of Sennacherib's invasion were catastrophic for Judea. In addition to paying a huge humiliating tribute, she lost her most fertile lands, located in the Shephelah valley, which Sennacherib gave to his Philistine vassals. In essence, Judea became a city-state, shrinking to the size of Jerusalem and its environs. The land was devastated, many inhabitants were taken captive. There is no trace left of economic prosperity. However, Jerusalem, unlike Samaria, survived, which was attributed by the Yahwists to the patronage of the “god of Israel,” whose messenger destroyed one hundred and eighty-five thousand Assyrian soldiers and thereby forced Sennacherib to leave (2 Kings 19:35).

We know nothing about Hezekiah's reign after the Assyrian invasion. When he died, his son Manasseh (698-642) ascended the throne of Judah, whose nearly half-century reign saw the relative revival of the Kingdom of Judah after the defeat of 701. The main reason for this revival was Manasseh's loyalty to his Assyrian overlords. It is curious that the kings of Judah, who pursued pro-Assyrian policies that brought peace and prosperity to Judah, are portrayed as villains by Deuteronomistic authors, while the hero is Hezekiah, whose rebellion against Assyria brought Judah to the brink of complete destruction. The EB modestly remains silent about Manasseh’s relations with the Assyrians, but Assyrian sources help correct this silence. Thus, Sennacherib's son Esarhaddon mentions Manasseh among the vassal kings who sent materials to Nineveh for the construction of a new royal palace, and Esarhaddon's son Ashurbanipal names him among his tributaries, whose troops participated in the Assyrian conquest of Egypt.

The reign of Manasseh was marked by a new demographic and economic rise in the Kingdom of Judah. The population of the rural area of Jerusalem grew, and the agricultural development of new lands in the south and east took place. The main sources of income for Judah were olive oil and grain, supplied to the imperial Assyrian market. In the 7th century BC Altogether there are hundreds of inscribed Jewish seals and bullae, as well as ostracons, indicating the first widespread literacy in history among the population of Judea. The earliest written recording of a number of texts later included in the Hebrew Bible, such as the Yahwist-Elohist source and a number of prophetic texts previously transmitted orally, can presumably be attributed to this century. After the death of Manasseh in 642 BC. his son Amon (who bore the name of the Egyptian God Amon) ascended the throne, who was killed by the conspirators two years later. The eight-year-old son of Amun, Josiah (640-609), became the new king of Judah. In the middle of his reign, the weakening of Assyria began, which ultimately led to its death. The consequence of the cessation of Judea’s dependence on Assyria was, apparently, the removal from the Jerusalem Temple of the symbols of this dependence - “horses and chariots of the Sun” (2 Kings 23:11), which, under the pen of the later Deuteronomists, turned into a comprehensive religious reform in the spirit of exclusive Yahwism.

Already ok. 656 BC Pharaoh Psammetichus I (664-610), who united all of Egypt under his rule, declared himself a ruler independent of Assyria. He was probably recognized by the Assyrians, for whom he was more profitable as an ally than as an enemy. After the death of the last great Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669-627), Assyria began to plunge into turmoil. In 626, a rebellion broke out in Babylonia, and in 623, a civil war began in Assyria itself. In 612, the Assyrian capital Nineveh fell to the Babylonians and Medes, and the remnants of the Assyrian court and troops fled west to Harran. In one of his inscriptions, Psammetichus I reports that he owns the entire coast of the Levant as far as Phenicia. Presumably, he concluded an agreement with Assyria, according to which all Assyrian possessions west of the Euphrates, including Judea, came under Egyptian rule in exchange for military assistance against the Babylonians.

In 610 BC. The Babylonians took Harran, and Psammetichus died in the same year. In 609, his son Necho II set out on a campaign to the north to recapture Harran from the Babylonians. On the way there, in the city of Megiddo, he killed the Jewish king Josiah. The Deuteronomic historian reports this very succinctly: “In his days Pharaoh Necho, king of Egypt, rose up against the king of Assyria on the Euphrates River. And King Josiah went to meet him, and he killed him in Megiddon when he saw him” (2 Kings 23:29). A later chronicler states that Josiah died in battle with the Egyptians (2 Chron. 35, 20-24), but the account of 2 Kings is more credible. Apparently, Necho simply executed his vassal Josiah for his connections with the Babylonians. The life of the king, whom the Deuteronomists represent as the greatest champion of Yahwism, ended so ingloriously that the Deuteronomist historian did not even find words for comment.

Pharaoh Necho slaying an Asian barbarian (Josiah?)
Seal from Megiddo, late 7th century. BC

Necho II's attempt to recapture Harran from the Babylonians was unsuccessful. On the way back, he removed Josiah's son Jehoahaz, who had sat on the Jewish throne for only 3 months, from power, and sent him to Egypt. Instead, Necho installed another son of Josiah, Joachim (Eliakim) (609-598), as king of Judea, who was forced to pay a heavy tribute to Egypt. In 605 BC. In the battle of Carchemish, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II defeated the remnants of the Assyrian army and Necho II who supported them. The Egyptians were forced to leave Canaan, which came under Babylonian rule. Her power was also recognized by Judea, but Joachim’s son Jehoiachin, who ascended the throne in 598, tried to break away from the Babylonians by concluding an alliance with Egypt. In response to this, Nebuchadnezzar II took Jerusalem in 597 and plundered the royal palace and the temple of Yahweh. The former king Jehoiachin was taken to Babylon along with a large number of representatives of the Jewish nobility, priesthood and artisans. Instead, Nebuchadnezzar placed another son of Josiah, Zedekiah (Matthaniah) (597-586), on the throne of Judea.

Ten years later, now Zedekiah made an attempt to break away from Babylon. In response to this, Nebuchadnezzar II, at the head of his army, again moved towards Jerusalem. After a year and a half of siege, the Babylonians broke into the city. King Zedekiah and his entourage managed to escape, but he was captured near Jericho and brought to Nebuchadnezzar. The sons of Zedekiah were executed before his eyes, after which he himself was blinded and taken in chains to Babylon. By order of the Babylonian king, Jerusalem was burned and its walls were destroyed. On the site of the Kingdom of Judah in 586 BC. The Babylonian province of Judah arose with an administrative center in the city of Mizpah in the tribe of Benjamin (probably present-day Tel en-Nasbeh, 12 km north of Jerusalem). The ancient sanctuary at Bethel became the religious center of the new province.