Questions for the Russian language exam

Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics.

Basic linguistic dictionaries of the Russian language

Outstanding Russian scholars

Basic elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, raising and lowering the voice, tone of speech, etc.)

6. The main sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech.

Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms.

The main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Neologisms.

9. Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Slavonicisms.

10. Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Catchphrases.

11. General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (using the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher).

12.Groups of morphemes (significant parts of words): root and auxiliary (suffix, prefix, ending). Derivational and inflectional service morphemes.

13. Functional parts of speech: prepositions, conjunctions, particles. Their categories according to meaning, structure and syntactic use

14. The word as a unit of language. Lexical meaning of the word. Groups of words by lexical meaning

15. Phraseologism: its lexical meaning, function in a sentence and text

16. Verb as part of speech

17. Non-conjugated (special) forms of the verb, their unifying feature

18. Unchangeable independent parts of speech. Their morphological and syntactic features.

19. Collocation as a unit of syntax. Types of connections between words in phrases. Types of phrases based on the morphological properties of the main word

20. A simple sentence, its types according to the purpose of the statement. Exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences. Complete and incomplete sentences. Two-part and one-part sentences. Common and uncommon offers

21. Secondary members of the sentence. Basic morphological ways of expressing minor members of a sentence.

22. Homogeneous members of the sentence. Generalizing words for homogeneous sentence members

23. Sentences with appeals, introductory words and insertions

24. Complex sentence and its types: allied and non-union sentences. Compound and complex sentences.

25. Other people's speech and the main methods of its transmission

26. Features of texts of different types: narration, description, reasoning.

27. Speech styles, their functions and scope of use.

Russian language in the modern world. The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication.

Language refers to those social phenomena that operate throughout the existence of human society. Language serves, first of all, as a means of communication between people. Language also serves as a means of forming and expressing thoughts and feelings, since it is inextricably linked with thinking and human consciousness.
Scientists have not yet given an exact answer to the question of how many languages ​​there are in the world. It is believed that there are now more than five thousand languages ​​in the world, among them there are “dying” ones, spoken by fewer and fewer people, and very little studied.

Russian language- this is the language of the Russian nation, the language of the Russian people. National language is a language spoken by a historically established group of people living in a common territory, connected by a common economy, culture, and lifestyle. The national language includes not only the literary (i.e. standardized) language, but also dialects, vernacular, jargons, and professionalisms. Language norm- this is the generally accepted use of linguistic means, the rules that determine the exemplary use of linguistic means.

Education and development of the national language- a complex, lengthy process. The history of the Russian national language begins in the 17th century, when the Russian nation finally took shape. The further development of the Russian national language is directly related to the development of the history and culture of the people. The Russian national language was formed on the basis of the dialects of Moscow and its environs. Literary language forms the basis of the national language and is obliged to maintain its internal unity despite the differences in the means of expression used. The creator of the Russian literary language is A. Pushkin, who combined the literary Russian language of previous eras with the common spoken language. The language of Pushkin's era has essentially been preserved to this day. Literary language unites living generations, people understand each other because they use the same linguistic norms. Literary language exists in two varieties - oral and written. The main advantages of the Russian national language are embodied in Russian fiction. For centuries, masters of words (A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, L. Tolstoy, A. Chekhov, M. Gorky, A. Tvardovsky, K. Paustovsky, etc.) and philologists (F. Buslaev, I. Sreznevsky, L. Shcherba, V. Vinogradov, etc.) improved the Russian language, brought it to the point of subtlety, creating for us a grammar, a dictionary, and model texts. The arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their connections contains that information about the world and people that introduces one to the spiritual wealth created by many generations of ancestors.
The peculiarity of the Russian national language is that it is the state language in Russia and serves as a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation.
The Law “On Languages” defines main areas of functioning of the Russian language as state: the highest bodies of state power and administration; publication of laws and other legal acts of the republics within the Russian Federation; holding elections; in the activities of government bodies; in official correspondence and office work; in the all-Russian media.
Studies carried out in the Russian republics and a number of CIS countries indicate recognition of the fact that at the present stage it is difficult to solve the problem of interethnic communication without the Russian language. Playing the role of an intermediary between all the languages ​​of the peoples of Russia, the Russian language helps solve the problems of the political, economic and cultural development of the country. In international relations, states use world languages, legally proclaimed by the UN as official and working languages. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. In any of these six languages, interstate political, economic, scientific and cultural contacts can be carried out, international meetings, forums, meetings can be held, correspondence and office work can be conducted within the UN, the CIS, etc.

The global significance of the Russian language is due to the richness and expressiveness of its vocabulary, sound structure, word formation, and syntax.
The philosopher Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilyin (1882-1954), speaking at the Pushkin anniversary in 1937, said this about the Russian language: “ And our Russia gave us one more gift: this is our wondrous, our mighty, our singing language. All of it is our Russia. It contains all her gifts: the breadth of unlimited possibilities, and the wealth of sounds, and words, and forms; both spontaneity and clarity; and simplicity, and scope, and guy; and dreaminess, and strength, and clarity, and beauty. Everything is accessible to our language. The whole singing Russian soul is in him; the echo of the world and human groans, and the mirror of divine visions... This is the language of a sharp, cutting thought. The language of a tremulous, nascent presentiment. The language of strong-willed decisions and accomplishments. The language of soaring and prophecy. The language of elusive transparency and eternal verbs.
This is the language of a mature, distinctive national character. And the Russian people, who created this language, are themselves called to reach mentally and spiritually the height to which their language calls them...»

The national language is the means of oral and written communication of a nation. Along with the commonality of territory, historical, economic and political life, as well as mental makeup, language is a leading indicator of the historical community of people, which is usually called the term nation(lat.natio – tribe, people).

Russian national language by kinship, belongs to to the Slavic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Indo-European languages ​​are one of the largest language families, including Anatolian, Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Italic, Romance, Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, Slavic groups, as well as Armenian, Phrygian, Venetian and some other languages.

Slavic languages ​​come from single pre-Slavic a language that emerged from the base Indo-European language long before our era. During the existence of the Proto-Slavic language, the main features inherent in all Slavic languages ​​developed. Around the 6th-7th centuries AD, the pre-Slavic unity disintegrated. The Eastern Slavs began to use a relatively common East Slavic tongue. (Old Russian, or the language of Kievan Rus). Around the same time, they formed West Slavic(Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbian Sorbian and “dead” Polabian) and South Slavic languages (Bulgarian, Serbian, Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Ruthenian and “dead” Old Church Slavonic).

In the 9th – 11th centuries, based on the translations of liturgical books made by Cyril and Methodius, the first written language of the Slavs was formed - Old Church Slavonic Its literary continuation will be the language used to this day in worship – Church Slavonic .

As feudal fragmentation intensified and the Tatar-Mongol yoke was overthrown, Great Russian, Little Russian and Belarusian nationalities were formed. Thus, the East Slavic group of languages ​​falls into three related languages: Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. By the 14th – 15th centuries, the language of the Great Russian people took shape with Rostov-Suzdal and Vladimir dialects at its core.

Russian national language begins to take shape in the 17th century in connection with the development capitalist relations and the development of the Russian people into nation. The phonetic system, grammatical structure and basic vocabulary of the Russian national language are inherited from the language Great Russian people, formed in the process interaction between northern Great Russian and southern Great Russian dialects. Moscow, located on the border of the south and north of the European part of Russia, has become the center of this interaction. Exactly Moscow business vernacular had a significant impact on the development of the national language.

The 18th century became an important stage in the development of the Russian national language. During these times, our compatriots spoke and wrote using a large number of Old Church Slavonic and Church Slavonic elements. What was required was the democratization of the language, the introduction into its structure of elements of the living, colloquial speech of merchants, service people, the clergy and literate peasants. Main role in theoretical foundation of Russian language played by M.V. Lomonosov. The scientist creates a “Russian grammar”, which has theoretical and practical significance: ordering of literary language and development rules for using its elements. “All sciences,” he explains, “have needs for grammar. Oratorio is stupid, poetry is tongue-tied, philosophy is unfounded, history is incomprehensible, jurisprudence without grammar is dubious.” Lomonosov pointed out two features of the Russian language that made it one of the most important world languages:

- "the vastness of the places where he dominates"

- “your own space and contentment.”

In the Petrine era, due to the appearance in Russia of many new objects and phenomena The vocabulary of the Russian language is updated and enriched. The flow of new words was so enormous that even a decree of Peter I was needed to normalize the use of borrowings.

The Karamzin period in the development of the Russian national language is characterized by the struggle for the establishment of a single language norm in it. At the same time, N.M. himself Karamzin and his supporters believe that, when defining norms, it is necessary to focus on Western, European languages ​​(French), free the Russian language from the influence of Church Slavonic speech, create new words, expand the semantics of those already used to denote emerging ones in the life of society, mainly secular, new objects, phenomena, processes. Karamzin’s opponent was the Slavophile A.S. Shishkov, who believed that the Old Church Slavonic language should become the basis of the Russian national language. The dispute over language between Slavophiles and Westerners was brilliantly resolved in the works of the great Russian writers of the early nineteenth century. A.S. Griboyedov and I.A. Krylov showed the inexhaustible possibilities of lively spoken language, the originality and richness of Russian folklore.

Creator the same national Russian language became A.S. Pushkin. In poetry and prose, the main thing, in his opinion, is “a sense of proportionality and conformity”: any element is appropriate if it accurately conveys thought and feeling.

In the first decades of the 19th century, the formation of the Russian national language was completed. However, the process of processing the national language in order to create uniform spelling, lexical, spelling and grammatical norms continues, numerous dictionaries are published, the largest of which was the four-volume Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V.I. Dalia.

After the October Revolution of 1917, important changes took place in the Russian language. Firstly, a huge layer of secular and religious vocabulary, which was very relevant before the revolution, “dies out.” The new government destroys objects, phenomena, processes and at the same time the words denoting them disappear: monarch, heir to the throne, gendarme, police officer, privat-docent, footman and so on. Millions of believing Russians cannot use openly Christian terminology: seminary, deacon, Eucharist, Ascension, Our Lady, Savior, Dormition, etc. These words live among the people secretly, latently, awaiting the hour of their revival. On the other side. a huge number of new words appear, reflecting changes in politics, economics, culture : Soviets, Kolchak member, Red Army soldier, security officer. A large number of complex abbreviated words appear: party contributions, collective farm, Revolutionary Military Council, Council of People's Commissars, commander, Prodrazverstka, tax in kind, cultural enlightenment, educational program. One of the striking distinctive features of the Russian language of the Soviet period – interference of the opposite, The essence of this phenomenon lies in the formation of two opposing lexical systems, positively and negatively characterizing the same phenomena that exist on opposite sides of the barricades, in the world of capitalism and in the world of socialism : scouts and spies, liberating soldiers and occupiers, partisans and bandits.

Nowadays, the Russian national language continues to develop in the post-Soviet space. Among the modern characteristic features of the language, the most important are:

1) replenishment of the vocabulary with new elements; first of all, this is borrowed vocabulary denoting objects and phenomena of the political, economic and cultural life of the country: electorate, extreme sports, business center, conversion, clone, chip, iridology, HIV infection, audio cassette, cheeseburger, jacuzzi;

2) the return to use of words that seemed to have lost such an opportunity forever; first of all this religious vocabulary: lord, communion. Annunciation, Liturgy, All-Night Vigil, Epiphany, Metropolitan;

3) the disappearance, along with objects and phenomena, of words characterizing Soviet reality: Komsomol, party organizer, state farm, DOSAAF, pioneer;

4) destruction of the system formed as a result of the action interference of the opposite.

The Russian national language has a complex and long history, its roots go back to ancient times.

Russian language belongs to the eastern group of Slavic languages. Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most widespread. All Slavic languages ​​show great similarities among themselves, but the ones closest to the Russian language are Belarusian and Ukrainian. The three of these languages ​​form the East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The development of the Russian language in different eras took place at different rates. An important factor in the process of its improvement was the mixing of languages, the formation of new words and the displacement of old ones. Even in prehistoric times, the language of the Eastern Slavs was a complex and variegated group of tribal dialects, which had already experienced various mixtures and crossings with the languages ​​of different nationalities and contained the rich heritage of centuries-old tribal life. Around the 2nd-1st millennium BC. From the group of related dialects of the Indo-European family of languages, the Proto-Slavic language stands out (at a later stage - around the 1st-7th centuries - called Proto-Slavic).

Already in Kievan Rus (9th - early 12th centuries), the Old Russian language became a means of communication for some Baltic, Finno-Ugric, Turkic, and partly Iranian tribes and nationalities. Relations and contacts with the Baltic peoples, with the Germans, with the Finnish tribes, with the Celts, with the Turkish-Turkic tribes (Hunnic hordes, Avars, Bulgarians, Khazars) could not but leave deep traces in the language of the Eastern Slavs, just as Slavic elements are found in Lithuanian, German, Finnish and Turkic languages. Occupying the East European Plain, the Slavs entered the territory of ancient cultures in their centuries-long succession. The cultural and historical ties of the Slavs established here with the Scythians and Sarmatians were also reflected and separated in the language of the Eastern Slavs.

In the ancient Russian state, during the period of fragmentation, territorial dialects and adverbs developed that were understandable for a particular area, so a language that was understandable to everyone was needed. It was needed by trade, diplomacy, and the church. The Old Church Slavonic language became such a language. The history of its emergence and formation in Rus' is connected with the Byzantine policy of the Russian princes and with the mission of the monastic brothers Cyril and Methodius. The interaction of Old Church Slavonic and Russian spoken languages ​​made possible the formation of the Old Russian language.

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century. By the 1st half of the 10th century. refers to the inscription on a korchaga (vessel) from Gnezdov (near Smolensk). This is probably an inscription indicating the owner's name. From the 2nd half of the 10th century. A number of inscriptions indicating the ownership of objects have also been preserved.

After the baptism of Rus' in 988, book writing arose. The chronicle reports “many scribes” who worked under Yaroslav the Wise. Mostly liturgical books were copied. The originals for East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts, dating back to the works of students of the creators of the Slavic script, Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian translation (variant) of the Church Slavonic language.

In addition to books intended for worship, other Christian literature was copied: the works of the holy fathers, lives of saints, collections of teachings and interpretations, collections of canon law. The oldest surviving written monuments include the Ostromir Gospel of 1056-1057. and the Archangel Gospel of 1092

The original works of Russian authors were moralizing and hagiographic works. Since the book language was mastered without grammars, dictionaries and rhetorical aids, compliance with language norms depended on the author’s erudition and his ability to reproduce the forms and structures that he knew from model texts.

Chronicles constitute a special class of ancient written monuments. The chronicler, outlining historical events, included them in the context of Christian history, and this united the chronicles with other monuments of book culture with spiritual content. Therefore, the chronicles were written in book language and were guided by the same body of exemplary texts, however, due to the specifics of the material presented (specific events, local realities), the language of the chronicles was supplemented with non-book elements.

In the XIV-XV centuries. the southwestern variety of the literary language of the Eastern Slavs was the language of statehood and the Orthodox Church in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Principality of Moldova.

Feudal fragmentation, which contributed to dialect fragmentation, the Mongol-Tatar yoke, and the Polish-Lithuanian conquests led to the XIII-XIV centuries. to the collapse of the ancient Russian people. The unity of the Old Russian language gradually disintegrated. Three centers of new ethno-linguistic associations were formed that fought for their Slavic identity: northeastern (Great Russians), southern (Ukrainians) and western (Belarusians). In the XIV-XV centuries. On the basis of these associations, closely related but independent East Slavic languages ​​are formed: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

In the XIV-XVI centuries. The Great Russian state and the Great Russian people are taking shape, and this time becomes a new stage in the history of the Russian language. The Russian language during the Muscovite Rus' era had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. 2 main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian approximately to the north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of N. Novgorod and Southern Great Russian to the south from the specified line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions - dialects that overlapped with other dialect divisions.

Intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which the Moscow dialect began to play a leading role. Initially it was mixed, then it developed into a coherent system. The following became characteristic of him: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; plosive consonant “g”; ending “-ovo”, “-evo” in the genitive case of the singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; the hard ending “-t” in 3rd person verbs of the present and future tense; forms of the pronouns “me”, “you”, “yourself” and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

At this time, in living speech, a final restructuring of the categories of time occurs (the ancient past tenses - aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquaperfect are completely replaced by a unified form with “-l”), the loss of the dual number, the former declension of nouns according to six stems is replaced by modern types of declension and etc. The written language remains colorful.

In the 2nd half of the 16th century. In the Moscow state, book printing began, which was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, and dictionaries.

A new significant stage in the development of the language - the 17th century - is associated with the development of the Russian people into a nation - during the period of increasing the role of the Moscow state and the unification of Russian lands, the Russian national language begins to form. During the formation of the Russian nation, the foundations of a national literary language were formed, which is associated with the weakening of the influence of the Church Slavonic language, the development of dialects ceased, and the role of the Moscow dialect increased. The development of new dialect features gradually stops, old dialect features become very stable. Thus, the 17th century, when the Russian nation finally took shape, is the beginning of the Russian national language.

In 1708, the division of the civil and Church Slavonic alphabet took place. Introduced civil alphabet, on which secular literature is printed.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries. Secular writing became widespread, church literature gradually moved into the background and finally became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific, technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx of words and expressions from Western European languages ​​into the Russian language. The impact was especially great from the 2nd half of the 18th century. The French language began to influence Russian vocabulary and phraseology.

Its further development is already closely connected with the history and culture of the Russian people. The 18th century was reformist. In fiction, science, and official business papers, the Slavic-Russian language is used, which has absorbed the culture of the Old Church Slavonic language. In everyday life it was used, in the words of the poet-reformer V.K. Trediakovsky, “natural language”.

The primary task was to create a single national language. In addition, there is an understanding of the special mission of language in the creation of an enlightened state, in the field of business relations, and its importance for science and literature. The democratization of the language begins: it includes elements of the living oral speech of ordinary people. The language begins to free itself from the influence of the Church Slavonic language, which has become the language of religion and worship. The language is being enriched at the expense of Western European languages, which primarily affected the formation of the language of science, politics, and technology.

There were so many borrowings that Peter I was forced to issue an order to limit foreign words and terms. The first reform of Russian writing was carried out by Peter I in 1708-1710. A number of letters were eliminated from the alphabet - omega, psi, Izhitsa. Letter styles were rounded and Arabic numerals were introduced.

In the 18th century society is beginning to realize that the Russian national language is capable of becoming the language of science, art, and education. M.V. played a special role in the creation of a literary language during this period. Lomonosov, he was not only a great scientist, but also a brilliant language researcher who created the theory of three styles. Possessing enormous talent, he wanted to change the attitude towards the Russian language not only of foreigners, but also of Russians, he wrote “Russian Grammar”, in which he gave a set of grammatical rules and showed the richest possibilities of the language.

He fought for Russian to become the language of science, so that lectures would be given in Russian by Russian teachers. He considered the Russian language one of the most powerful and rich languages ​​and cared about its purity and expressiveness. It is especially valuable that M.V. Lomonosov considered language a means of communication, constantly emphasizing that people need it for “the flow of harmony in common affairs, which is controlled by the combination of different thoughts.” According to Lomonosov, without language, society would be like an unassembled machine, all parts of which are scattered and inactive, which is why “their very existence is vain and useless.”

Since the 18th century Russian language becomes a literary language with generally accepted norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. The creator of the Russian literary language was A.S. Pushkin. His work enshrined the norms of the Russian literary language that later became national.

The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of literary language up to the present day. In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, as well as the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

In the 19th century A real struggle unfolded for the establishment of language norms. The collision of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle between different trends. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to the people's speech, while the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic “Slovenian” language, incomprehensible to the general population.

At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. It was conducted between the followers of the writer N.M. Karamzin and Slavophile A.S. Shishkova. Karamzin fought for the establishment of uniform norms, demanded to be freed from the influence of the three styles and Church Slavonic speech, and to use new words, including borrowed ones. Shishkov believed that the basis of the national language should be the Church Slavonic language.

The flourishing of literature in the 19th century. had a great influence on the development and enrichment of the Russian language. In the first half of the 19th century. the process of creating the Russian national language was completed.

In the modern Russian language there is an active (intensive) growth of special terminology, which is caused, first of all, by the needs of the scientific and technological revolution. If at the beginning of the 18th century. terminology was borrowed by the Russian language from the German language in the 19th century. - from the French language, then in the middle of the twentieth century. it is borrowed mainly from the English language (in its American version). Special vocabulary has become the most important source of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian general literary language, but the penetration of foreign words should be reasonably limited.

Thus, language embodies national character, national idea, and national ideals. Each Russian word carries experience, a moral position, properties inherent in the Russian mentality, which is perfectly reflected by our proverbs: “Everyone goes crazy in his own way,” “God protects the careful,” “Thunder will not strike, a man will not cross himself,” etc. And also fairy tales where the hero (soldier, Ivanushka the Fool, man), getting into difficult situations, emerges victorious and becomes rich and happy.

The Russian language has inexhaustible possibilities for expressing thoughts, developing various topics, and creating works of any genre.

We can be proud of the works of great people written in Russian. These are works of great Russian literature, the works of scientists well known in other countries. To read the original works of Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and other Russian writers, many study the Russian language.

Language is the most important factor in national personal identification, which forms the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, evaluate...

History of the Russian language: origin, distinctive features and interesting facts

From Masterweb

09.05.2018 05:00

Language is the most important factor in national personal identification, which shapes the characteristics of perception, the ability to think and speak, and evaluate the world around us. The history of the Russian language is rooted in events 1.5-2 thousand years ago, which favored its creation. Today it is recognized as the richest language in the world and the fifth largest in terms of population that speaks it.

How did the Russian language appear?

In prehistoric times, Slavic tribes spoke completely different dialects. The ancestors of the Slavs lived on lands washed by the Dnieper, Vistula and Pripyat rivers. Already by the middle of the 1st century AD. e. tribes occupied all territories from the Adriatic to Lake. Ilmen is in the northeastern part of the European continent.

The history of the emergence and development of the Russian language dates back to about 2-1 thousand years BC. e., when the Proto-Slavic dialect was separated from the group of Indo-European languages.

Scientists conventionally divide the Old Russian language into 3 groups according to their ethnic linguistic component:

• South Russian (Bulgarians, Slovenes, Serbo-Croats);
• Western Russian (Poles, Czechs, Pomors, Slovaks);
• Central Russian (eastern).

Modern norms of vocabulary and grammar in the Russian language were formed as a result of the interaction of many East Slavic dialects that were widespread in the territory of Ancient Rus' and the Church Slavonic language. Also, the written form was greatly influenced by Greek culture.

Theories of the origin of the Russian language

There are several theories, the main of which connect the beginning of the history of the Russian language with ancient Indian Sanskrit and the Old Norse language.

In accordance with the first, experts consider the ancient language Sanskrit, which was spoken only by Indian priests and scientists, to be the closest to Russian, which indicates that it was introduced from the outside. According to a Hindu legend, which is even studied in theosophical universities in India, in ancient times 7 white-skinned teachers came to the Himalayas from the North, who gave Sanskrit.

With his help, the foundations of the Brahman religion were laid, which is still one of the mass religions, and through it Buddhism was created. Until now, Brahmins call the Russian North the ancestral home of humanity and even make pilgrimages there.

As linguists note, 60% of words in Sanskrit completely coincide with Russian in their pronunciation. Many scientific works have been devoted to this issue, including those of the ethnographer N.R. Guseva. She spent many years studying the phenomenon of similarity between the Russian language and Sanskrit, calling the latter a simplified version frozen for 4-5 millennia. The only difference between them is the way of writing: Sanskrit is written in hieroglyphs, which scientists call Slavic-Aryan runes.

Another theory of the history of the origin of the Russian language hypothesizes that the word “Rus” itself and the language have Old Norse roots. According to historians, the Greeks called the Norman tribes “dews” until the 9th-10th centuries, and only in the 10th-11th centuries. this name passed to the Varangian squads who came to the territory of Rus'. It was from them that the future great princes of Ancient Rus' descended. For example, in old birch bark documents from the 11th-13th centuries. Novgorodians consider Russia to be the territory of the Eastern Slavs near Kyiv and Chernigov. And only from the 14th century. when fighting with enemy troops in the chronicles, they define their belonging to the Russians.

Cyril and Methodius: creation of the alphabet

The history of the Russian language, which was formed in written form, dates back to the 9th century, in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus. The alphabet that existed in Greece at that time could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, therefore in 860-866. Emperor Michael III of Byzantium gave instructions to create a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language. Thus, he wanted to simplify the translation of Greek religious manuscripts into Slavic.

Scientists attribute the success of the creation of its literary form to the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius, who went to preach in Moravia and, observing fasting and prayer, after 40 days they acquired the Glagolitic alphabet. According to legend, it was faith that helped the brothers preach Christianity to the uneducated peoples of Rus'.

At that time, the Slavic alphabet consisted of 38 letters. Later, the Cyrillic alphabet was modified by their followers, using the Greek uncial letter and charter. Both alphabets are almost identical in the sound of the letters, the difference lies in the form and spelling.

It was the rapidity with which Russian writing spread in Rus' that subsequently contributed to the fact that this language became one of the leading languages ​​in its era. This also contributed to the unification of the Slavic peoples, which occurred in the period 9-11 centuries.

Period 12-17 centuries

One of the famous literary monuments of the period of Ancient Rus' was “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign,” which tells about the campaign of the Russian princes against the Polovtsian army. Its authorship still remains unknown. The events described in the poem took place in the 12th century. in the era of feudal fragmentation, when the Mongol-Tatars and Polish-Lithuanian conquerors were rampant in their raids.

The next stage in the history of the development of the Russian language dates back to this period, when it was divided into 3 ethno-linguistic groups, the dialectical features of which had already been formed:

• Great Russian;
• Ukrainian;
• Belarusian

In the 15th century On the European territory of Russia, there were 2 main groups of dialects: southern and northern dialects, each of which had its own characteristics: Akanye or Okanye, etc. During this period, several intermediate Central Russian dialects arose, among which Moscow was considered classic. Periodicals and literature began to be published on it.

The formation of Muscovite Rus' served as an impetus for language reform: sentences became shorter, everyday vocabulary and folk proverbs and sayings were widely used. In the history of the development of the Russian language, the era of the beginning of printing played a big role. An illustrative example was the work “Domostroy”, published in the mid-16th century.

In the 17th century, in connection with the heyday of the Polish state, many terms came from the field of technology and jurisprudence, with the help of which the Russian language went through a stage of modernization. By the beginning of the 18th century. French influence was strongly felt in Europe, which gave impetus to the Europeanization of high society in the Russian state.

Works of M. Lomonosov

The common people did not learn Russian writing, and the nobles studied more foreign languages: German, French, etc. Primers and grammar until the 18th century. were made only in the Church Slavonic dialect.

The history of the Russian literary language originates from the alphabet reform, during which Tsar Peter the Great reviewed the 1st edition of the new alphabet. This happened in 1710.

The leading role was played by the scientist Mikhail Lomonosov, who wrote the first “Russian Grammar” (1755). He gave the literary language its final form, merging Russian and Slavic elements.

Lomonosov established a harmonious system of styles and united all its varieties, using oral speech, command and some regional variations, introduced a new system of versification, which still remains the main force and part of Russian poetry.

He also wrote a work on rhetoric and an article in which the scientist successfully used the lexical and grammatical wealth of the Church Slavonic language. Lomonosov also wrote about three main styles of poetic language, in which the work with the greatest use of Slavicisms was considered high.

During this period, the democratization of the language took place, its composition and vocabulary were enriched by literate peasants, oral speech of representatives of the merchant class and the lower strata of the clergy. The first most detailed textbooks on the literary Russian language were published by the writer N. Grech in the 1820s.

In noble families, it was mainly boys who studied their native language, who were trained for military service, because they had to command soldiers from the common people. The girls studied French, and spoke Russian only to communicate with servants. Thus, the poet A. S. Pushkin grew up in a French-speaking family, and spoke his native language only with his nanny and grandmother. Later, he studied Russian with priest A. Belikov and a local clerk. Education at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was also conducted in the native language.

In the 1820s, in the high society of Moscow and St. Petersburg, there was an opinion that it was indecent to speak Russian, especially in front of ladies. However, the situation soon changed.

XIX century - century of Russian literature

The beginning of the heyday and fashion for the Russian language was the costume ball, which in 1830 was held in the Anichkov Palace. On it, the Empress's maid of honor read the poem "Cyclops", specially written for the celebration by A.S. Pushkin.

Tsar Nicholas I spoke out in defense of his native language, and ordered that all correspondence and office work be conducted in it from now on. All foreigners upon entering the service were required to pass an exam on their knowledge of Russian, and they were also required to speak it at court. Emperor Alexander III put forward the same demands, but at the end of the 19th century. The English language came into fashion and was taught to noble and royal children.

Great influence on the history of the development of the Russian language in the 18-19 centuries. were influenced by Russian writers who became popular at that time: D. I. Fonvizin, N. M. Karamzin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, in poetry - A. S. Pushkin and M. Yu. Lermontov. With their works they showed all the beauty of their native speech, using it freely and freeing it from stylistic restrictions. In 1863, V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published.

Borrowing

In the history of the Russian language, there are many facts about its growth and enrichment when borrowing a large number of words of foreign origin into the vocabulary. Some of the words came from Church Slavonic. At different times in history, the degree of influence of the neighboring linguistic community differed, but this always helped the introduction of new words and phrases.

With contact with European languages ​​for a long time, many words came into Russian speech from them:

• from Greek: beet, crocodile, bench, and most names;
• from Scythians and Iranian group: dog, paradise;
• Some names came from the Scandinavians: Olga, Igor, etc.;
• from Turkic: diamond, pants, fog;
• from Polish: bank, duel;
• French: beach, conductor;
• from Dutch: orange, yacht;
• from Romano-Germanic languages: algebra, tie, dance, powder, cement;
• from Hungarian: hussar, saber;
• musical and culinary terms were borrowed from Italian: pasta, saldo, opera, etc.;
• from English: jeans, sweater, tuxedo, shorts, jam, etc.

The borrowing of technical and other terms gained widespread importance in the late 19th and 20th centuries as new techniques and technologies developed, especially from the English language.

For its part, the Russian language has given the world many words that are now considered international: matryoshka, vodka, samovar, satellite, tsar, dacha, steppe, pogrom, etc.

20th century and the development of the Russian language

In 1918, a reform of the Russian language was carried out, in which the following changes were introduced to the alphabet:

• the letters “yat”, “fita”, “decimal” were removed and replaced with “E”, “F” and “I”;
• the hard sign at the ends of words has been abolished;
• it is indicated in the prefixes to use the letters “s” before voiceless consonants and “z” - before voiced ones;
• changes in endings and cases of some words have been accepted;
• “Izhitsa” itself disappeared from the alphabet even before the reform.

The modern Russian language was approved in 1942, in the alphabet of which 2 letters “E” and “Y” were added, since then it has already consisted of 33 letters.

By the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st century, due to universal compulsory education, the widespread use of print media, mass media, cinema and television, the majority of the Russian population began to speak the standard Russian literary language. The influence of dialects is occasionally felt only in the speech of older people who live in remote rural areas.

Many linguists and scientists believe that the Russian language is unique in its richness and expressiveness and its existence arouses interest throughout the world. This is evidenced by statistics that recognize it as the 8th most common language on the planet, because it is spoken by 250 million people.

The most interesting facts from the history of the development of the Russian language in brief:

• it is one of the 6 working languages ​​of the United Nations (UN);
• ranks 4th in the world in the list of most translated languages;
• large Russian-speaking communities live not only in the countries of the former USSR, but also in Turkey, Israel, the USA, etc.;
• when learning Russian by foreigners, it is considered one of the most difficult, along with Chinese and Japanese;
• the oldest books written in Old Russian: the Novgorod Codex (early 11th century) and the Ostrovir Gospel (1057) - in Church Slavonic;
• has a unique alphabet, extraordinary forms and cases, many rules and even more exceptions to them;
• in the Old Church Slavonic alphabet the first letter was “I”;
• the youngest letter “E”, which appeared only in 1873;
• in the Russian alphabet, some letters are similar to Latin ones, and 2 of them are completely impossible to pronounce “b” and “b”;
• in the Russian language there are words that begin with “Y”, but these are geographical names;
• in 1993, the Guinness Book of Records included the longest word in the world with 33 letters, “X-ray electrocardiographic,” and already in 2003, with 39 letters, “highly considerate”;
• In Russia, 99.4% of the population speaks their native language fluently.

A Brief History of the Russian Language: Facts and Dates

Summarizing all the data, you can create a chronological sequence of facts that occurred from ancient times to the present day during the formation of modern language:

The given brief history of the Russian language reflects the course of events rather conditionally. After all, the development and improvement of oral and written forms of speech, the publication of printed publications and literary masterpieces occurred at different times, gradually gaining more and more popularity among various segments of the Russian population.

As evidenced by the history and general characteristics of the Russian language, its development has been carried out over thousands of years, and enrichment through new words and expressions occurs under the influence of socio-political life, especially in the last 100 years. In the 21st century, its replenishment is actively influenced by the media and the Internet.

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The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the language of the Russian nation. The Russian language is part of the Slavic group of languages, which also includes Ukrainian, Belarusian, Bulgarian, Czech, Slovak, Macedonian, Slovenian and other languages. All of these languages ​​originated from the Common Slavic language.

Russian language refers to Slavic group Indo-European family of languages. Within the Slavic group, in turn, three groups - branches are distinguished: eastern(languages ​​Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian), southern(languages ​​Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian and Slovenian) and western(Polish, Slovak, Czech and others).

Russian language is one of the richest languages ​​in the world. He has a large vocabulary and has developed expressive means used to denote all the necessary concepts in any field of human activity.

On the territory of the Russian Federation, Russian is the state language. The state language of the Russian Federation can be considered as a system-forming factor in preserving the integrity of the Russian Federation, as a tool for expressing the will of the people and every citizen of the country, as a necessary element for the implementation of uniformity of public administration and understanding of the state will, as a mechanism for realizing the rights and responsibilities of the population of Russia, as a national sign in international legal relations. Due to the fact that people of different nationalities live in the Russian Federation, the Russian language serves for productive interethnic communication. With the help of the Russian language as a means of communication, many problems of national importance are solved. In addition, the Russian language helps to become familiar with the riches of Russian and world scientific thought and culture. The Russian language is one of the generally recognized world languages ​​and one of the most developed languages ​​in the world.

Language, in its specificity and social significance, is a unique phenomenon: it is a means of communication and influence, a means of storing and assimilating knowledge, and the focus of the spiritual culture of the people.

The Russian language is the language of culture, science and technology. The Russian language is the primary element of great Russian literature. Works of outstanding Russian writers were created in Russian - A.S. Pushkina, M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V. Gogol, F.I. Tyutcheva, I.S. Turgeneva, S.A. Yesenina, M.I. Tsvetaeva, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhova, I.A. Bunin, M. Gorky, V.V. Mayakovsky, B.L. Pasternak, M.A. Bulgakov and other writers. Literature is unthinkable without language. Literature is the art of depiction in words, and Russian literature is the art of depiction in Russian words.

The connection of language with national character, mentality, with national self-awareness and its expression in literature was an obvious truth for all Russian writers. I.A. Goncharov wrote that “...what connects us with our nation, most of all, is language.” The impact on the reader on the part of the author of a work of art is associated, first of all, with the imagery and emotional richness of the word.

The Russian language is a huge element that maintains relative, but still ecological purity. The ocean of words is boundless, it conceals both unpredictable processes and stability thanks to the immunity of colossal strength, the unique property of self-purification. Famous philologist and literary critic M.M. Bakhtin said: “Man is first of all a word, and then everything else. The word is an instrument for a person’s fulfillment; it provides him with vital energy.” Mastery of words - an instrument of communication and thinking - is the fundamental basis of human intelligence. A person who has few words in his stock is lost, complex, and does not find a common language with the people around him. Academician D.S. Likhachev wrote about language: “...Our language is the most important part of our general behavior in life. And by the way a person speaks, we can immediately and easily judge who we are dealing with... You need to learn good intelligent speech for a long time and carefully - listening, remembering, noticing, reading and studying. But even though it’s difficult, it’s necessary.”