What happened in England in 1066. Norman Conquest

England by the middle of the 11th century. In the history of England, few events can compare in importance to those that took place in the second half of the 11th century, the most striking, dramatic and catastrophic episode of which was the Battle of Hastings. “To punish the people of the Angles,” writes one pious author of the 12th century, “God planned a double attack against them: on the one hand, he organized an invasion of the Danes, on the other, he aroused the machinations of the Normans, so that the Angles, even if they got rid of the Danes, did not could have eluded the Normans."

It is worth recalling that the British Isles turned out to be a tasty morsel for many conquerors: in the middle of the 5th century, as soon as the last legions of the Romans left them, Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes began to move there in waves from the coast of the North Sea and Jutland. Over the course of two or three centuries, they settled there properly, slowly, but they began to understand the importance of uniting into one kingdom. But then new conquerors and robbers descended from the northeast, most of all from Denmark - they were called “people of the north,” the Normans. From the end of the 8th century. until the middle of the 11th century. they haunted the whole of Europe, and most of all, Britain. Our pious author is precisely talking about the last stage of the struggle for it in the early medieval period.

Duchy of Normandy. And the knights of the Duchy of Normandy took advantage of these circumstances, i.e. Normans, descendants of the same “people of the north”. Once upon a time, at the beginning of the 10th century, they landed from their military robber boats at the mouth of the Seine River, in northwestern France. And they began to rob and burn all of France. They did not spare temples, villages, cities. They shed a lot of blood because, among other things, they remained pagans.

The King of France realized that they could not be defeated by war, entered into negotiations, and ceded them lands in the north-west. They began to be called Normandy. Having mixed with the local population, the ferocious Normans quickly adopted Christianity, mastered the French language, customs, culture, and after a few generations turned into real Frenchmen. They built castles in the country, introduced feudal orders, began to be proud of their nobility, and were reborn. But they remained the best warriors in Europe.

William. The Normans established relations with England back in the 10th century, when they began to serve the Anglo-Saxon kings at their invitation. In the middle of the 11th century. William became Duke of Normandy. He embodied the typical characteristics of a Norman. The Duke was of heroic build and strength, so that no one but him could pull his bow. He was considered the best fighter in his own army. And at the same time - a skillful commander, cold-blooded, prudent, brave. The circumstances of his life - the fact that he was the natural son of the Duke of Normandy - strengthened his character. He had known Harold, the future king of England, for a long time.

Anglo-Saxon dwelling
noble person

Childless Edward the Confessor. At that time, Edward the Confessor ruled in England. He had no children, and even during his lifetime it became clear that the situation with a candidacy for the royal throne was not simple. In England of his time, it was customary for in such cases the name of the successor to be named by the king himself or his Council of the Wise, which included the most noble and authoritative persons of the state.

Many believed that the king would name his wife's brother Harold, Earl of Wessex, as heir. He was a brave and experienced warrior, a strong man, quite capable of great government activities. But another possible contender for the royal crown emerged - the above-mentioned Duke of Normandy, William. He belonged to a not very close, but blood relative of King Edward on his mother’s side, and was the king’s second cousin. True, as the illegitimate son of the Norman Duke, William did not have, in the concepts of medieval society, and by virtue of tradition, the same full rights as heirs born in marriage. But Edward, according to the Norman chronicles, promised the crown to William 15 years before his death.

Harold's oath to William. Harold and William themselves further confused the circumstances for historians. The fact is that Harold, for unknown reasons, went to Normandy, his ship was wrecked, and he was captured by one of the noble feudal lords. Wilhelm immediately rescued him from captivity. Moreover, he invited me to stay in Normandy and show knightly prowess in the next campaign against neighboring Brittany. They lived in perfect harmony, slept in the same tent, and did not part for days on end.

One of his contemporary chroniclers says that William once addressed Harold with the following speech: “Once upon a time, King Edward of England and I lived under the same roof and he promised to make me his successor. I want you, Harold, to help me with this, and then I will do for you whatever you ask."

Harold was taken by surprise. William persuaded him to give up one of the castles in England, marry his sister, William, and leave a hostage. Harold was forced to agree.

After this conversation, they returned to William's castle, in the city of Bayeux. There, William ordered to collect all the holy relics that were in churches and monasteries, and hid them under a table covered with a brocade tablecloth. And he put the Gospel on the table, on which all the oaths were taken then. Then he ordered all his barons, as vassals were then called, to gather for a meeting. In front of everyone, he again turned to Harold and asked him to confirm with an oath his promise to help in obtaining the crown of England. He repeated his words, holding out his hands to the Gospel. After which William threw back the tablecloth and showed that Harold swore at the same time on the holy relics, that is, he made the most terrible oath that could not be broken. Harold's face changed at the sight of this and trembled with horror.

Edward names Harold the new king. When he returned to England and told everything to King Edward, he sadly hung his head. His life was quickly coming to an end. In January 1066 he fell ill, his tongue refused to obey, everyone was afraid that he would not be able to name the successor. But he managed to point to Harold and say his name.

According to tradition, the general meeting, for its part, was supposed to indicate a new king. Almost everyone was for the same Harold, but two northern regions - Mercia and Northumberland - refused to recognize him. The country was divided into parts. And this was the beginning of great troubles.

William in Normandy said that Harold's betrayal saddened him.

William addresses the Pope. He thought through his actions a long time ago. And he immediately turned to the Pope and began to ask him which of them - he or Harold - has the right to become king, if King Edward bequeathed the crown to him, and Harold swore an oath to help. The Pope issued a bull in which he declared Harold an illegitimate king, and blessed William to fight. Along with the bull, he was sent from Rome a consecrated banner and an expensive ring, under the diamond stone of which a precious relic was placed - the hair of the Apostle Peter himself, the founder of the Roman church.

William gathers an army. After this, William sends out invitations to his vassals. In Normandy, each major feudal lord was obliged, in case of conscription, to provide the king with a certain number of knights - most often from 20 to 30 - to serve for 40 days a year. But...only within Normandy. Convincing them to provide people for a dangerous overseas campaign was not so easy. Wilhelm had to promise a worthy reward, land, and booty. Moreover, he begged nobles, merchants, and clergy to equip ships or give money for the expedition.

He recorded all donations in a special list. This document has been preserved. Among the names are, for example, the Count d'Evreux, who built more than 80 ships with his own money, or Roger de Montgomery, who equipped 60. These were stable longboats with one sail. Almost 3 thousand horses and at least 7 thousand warriors were placed on them.

At the same time, William turned to the ordinary nobility and nobility of France. And he began to gather an army. The Norman knighthood was joined by the Duke's vassals from Maine and Anjou, volunteers from Brittany, Poitou, Aquitaine and Burgundy, Flanders, Champagne and even from Italy. Many wanted to have lands in England, as well as castles, cities, and salary.

In the spring and summer, ships were built and equipped in all the harbors of Normandy. Norman peasants and artisans worked tirelessly. Blacksmiths and gunsmiths made spears, swords, chain mail, and axes.

Finally going camping! The gathering place was declared to be the mouth of the Diva River, from where it was most convenient to cross the English Channel. Researchers believe that there were from 400 to 700 ships and 7 thousand people, half of them knights, half foot soldiers. For almost a month, the nasty wind made it impossible to sail. But on September 27, 1066, the sun appeared, and all the ships moved to the sea. “A whole forest of masts” moved behind Wilhelm’s ship.

The longest campaign since Roman times began, which lasted 7 months and became the most significant military operation since Roman times. Three lions were painted on the sails of William's ship, i.e. coat of arms of Normandy.

Harold is preparing for war. Harold in England understood that William would not leave him alone. The spies informed him of the danger. Moreover, at the end of April a comet with a long tail appeared, which seemed to the superstitious warriors a bad omen. He was preparing for war. But his army was worse organized than the knights of the continent. In addition, it consisted of many foot militia from peasants who yearned for home and farming and were not as prepared as the knights. And Harold did not have very many warriors, although each of them was a first-class and seasoned warrior.

Harold defeats the Norwegians. There was one more circumstance against Harold: his brother agreed with the king of Norway for help in the war with his brother.

Harold found himself between two fires. Wilhelm threatened from the south, and his brother and the Norwegians from the north. Harold decided to carry out a lightning operation against the Norwegians and return to the south. He managed to defeat the Norwegians. The brother fell on the battlefield. The remnants of the defeated Norwegian army sailed back.

William lands in the south of England. Harold was celebrating his victory with friends when on October 1 a messenger appeared and brought terrible news: William had landed in the south of England. No one prevented his landing three days earlier - on September 28. Warriors were unloaded from ships and boats. First - the arrows. Then the horsemen. They were wearing armor and helmets. The Normans even brought with them the frames of three wooden castles.

Wilhelm was one of the last to jump to the ground and, slipping, fell. The superstitious warriors began to whisper. But William, with his characteristic resourcefulness, joyfully cried out: “Why are you afraid? I now hold the land of England with both hands!”

Without shedding a single drop of the blood of his soldiers, William walked along the old Roman road to the town of Hastings, where his soldiers quickly began to set up tents and tents and fortify their camp. They also put up locks in which they stored supplies.

To frighten the population, William ordered the soldiers to collect supplies, rob, destroy houses, and burn villages. Soon news came to him about Harold and his victory in the north. Wilhelm sent a monk to him to remind him of the oath. But Harold did not listen to the monk. Then the monk, by order of William, declared: “The Duke declares you a perjurer and a liar. Know that everyone who supports you is excommunicated from the church, about which there is a bull from the Pope.”

Harold prepares to fight William. Harold hoped to put an end to the Normans as quickly as the Norwegians. He led his army to a hill, located 7 kilometers from William’s camp. Harold's army could have had about the same number of warriors as William's, or perhaps fewer - from 4 to 7 thousand people.

The main difference between the armies was that the English consisted exclusively of foot soldiers, while the Normans consisted partly of foot soldiers and partly of cavalry. As a result, Harold could not choose level ground for battle. And therefore he chose a wide hill that covered his tightly lined troops. The place also had the advantage that there were rather steep slopes behind it, and in the middle there was a narrow ravine that led into the forest. In case of defeat, Harold's warriors could descend from the slopes and flee into the forest, and it would not be so easy for the Norman horsemen to pursue them.

Harold puts up a "shield wall". Harold chose his position skillfully. He strengthened it with a ditch. On the central part of the hill was himself and the best warriors. He managed to form the famous Saxon “shield wall” - a military formation in which the combatants took up a perimeter defense, standing shoulder to shoulder and tightly closing their shields. In the center of this wall stood approximately 2 thousand selected warriors and bodyguards of Harold and there were two banners. One depicted a Dragon, the other a Warrior.

The battle plan was clearly outlined: Harold was blocking William's path and his army had to stand motionless, like a rock against which the waves break.

October 14. On the day of St. Callixtus, October 14, a battle broke out. At 9 a.m. the Normans launched their first attack. William's court poet rode forward and began to militantly sing the lines of the "Song of Roland", throwing and catching a heavy sword in flight. And the Normans chimed in: “God, help us, God, help us.” Approaching Harold's warriors, he knocked down two of them and immediately fell under the blows of the others. Thus began the battle. The Normans advanced on the hill in a wide front, having all three types of warriors: horsemen, spearmen and archers. On the first line were archers and crossbowmen, in the next line were heavily armed infantry and behind them were mounted knights. William was in the center and next to him was the papal banner as a sign that the campaign was pleasing to God.

The Norman skirmishers fired a hail of arrows, and under their cover, heavily armed infantrymen climbed the hills, trying to break through the ranks of Harold's warriors. The advantage of archers was their numbers and the range of their arrows. But the Anglo-Saxons were on the top of the hill and were shooting from above, and they were shooting from below. Mounted warriors mixed with foot soldiers began to storm the hill. A terrible battle began to boil in the hills. But the advantage of the position of Harold’s warriors was so great, and the strength of the cavalry was so weakened by the slopes that Harold’s warriors held firm, fighting back with axes, spears, and arrows. No one flinched, no one retreated.

Some of the Normans were knocked down the hill, while others, unable to break through, retreated down on their own. The battle seemed lost. But William and his companions were preparing for the next attack. William personally led the soldiers. The attack turned out to be even more fierce. William himself fought in the front ranks; two horses were killed under him. When the first horse fell, he jumped on the other and shouted: “Look at me! I am alive and by the grace of God I will be a winner.” It is believed that he struck one of Harold's brothers with his hand. Then his second brother fell too. But the Anglo-Saxon warriors stood firm.

Then Wilhelm came up with a cunning plan: to lure the enemies out from behind the fortification and collapse from all sides. The third attack began. As chroniclers report, again the entire mass of his army hit the fence, and after a short battle, the left wing, as planned by William, moved back strongly. Harold's warriors could not resist. Carried away by success, they rushed after the enemy. Instantly, part of William’s army surrounded them below, while the other rushed upward and broke through the fence left unprotected.

On the hill where Harold was, a terrible battle began again. Without respite, the warriors fought for almost the whole day. And they were already starting to get tired. And William came up with a new trick: he ordered his soldiers to shoot arrows upward, a hail of arrows fell on Harold’s soldiers from the sky, chipped their helmets, wounded their heads, necks, and arms.

Someone's arrow hit Harold himself right in the face, and he fell to the foot of the banner. A terrible massacre unfolded around the fallen king. Four Normans, in the ecstasy of battle, mocked the dead body. After the battle, the mutilated body was buried in an unknown place. Wilhelm obviously did everything to ensure that no memories of Harold remained.

End of the battle. As one of the most famous researchers of medieval battles, the German historian Hans Delbrück, writes, the strength of the Anglo-Saxons was in defense, but defense alone cannot win battles. Harold's warriors were supposed to go on the offensive, but they did not have enough strength to do so.

The battle was lost. But the battle continued; Harold's warriors fought alone. No one ran, did not ask for mercy, and every single one was cut down by the swords of William's knights. They pursued their opponents even in the dark. Only deep night put an end to the massacre. The place itself still bears the laconic name “place of battle.”

William is crowned on Christmas Day. Wilhelm did not soon lay down his arms; more than once he met heroic resistance. But he achieved the main thing: four months later, on December 25, 1066, on Christmas Day, the coronation was held. William became the rightful king of England. Thus began a new, Norman period in its history.

There are few pages in English history as dramatic as Harold's nine-month reign. But there are even fewer battles like the Battle of Hastings, which truly became a turning point in the history of the country. Some call these events the "final invasion." William rewarded his associates as promised. Every four out of five villages fell to the Normans and their allies. Everyone who settled in England was considered the king's vassals and had to serve him faithfully. About 250 of the king's largest and most noble associates swore allegiance to him and their readiness to bring their troops, as they did during the conquest of England.

William accelerated England's steps towards feudalism, which allowed it to catch up with France, and then overtake it. Wilhelm made the state strong, subjugated the barons, carried out a census of lands and farms, and streamlined taxes. England was rapidly entering a new era. The times of William's reign were called the times of "Norman slavery". But time has ground everything, the Normans mixed with the Anglo-Saxons, two centuries later the parliament, English freedom, and many English traditions related to the recognition and protection of individual rights were born.

Carpet from Bayeux. William's half-brother, the bishop of the city of Bayeux, a participant in the campaign, rewarded as generously as the others, decided to perpetuate William's victory: at his order, craftsmen and craftswomen, most likely from the county of Kent, embroidered a carpet with scenes of the preparation of the campaign, the crossing of soldiers, and battles on hills, which allows you to very vividly imagine ships, weapons, and details of battles, is a unique artistic source. A wonderful embroidery 70 meters long, made with colored wool threads, has been preserved and is now located in a special room, which has become a museum of one carpet - the Bayeux Tapestry.

The series of embroidered scenes begins with the image of a conversation between old sad Edward and Harold on the eve of his sailing for Normandy, and ends with an image of his motionless body lying near the banner. The last “paintings” have been torn off the carpet. It is possible that William was represented at them, kneeling on the same hill and thanking God for the victory. You can’t say anything, he stumbled on a low bank in order to forever establish himself in a high place of royal power.

After the battle, William founded the monastery of Battle (literally “battle”), the main altar of which was erected on the very spot where Harold died. And four years later, the decision of the council of bishops imposed on the soldiers the requirement of mandatory repentance of the cities.

NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND 1066

conquest of England 1066, invasion of England by Norman feudal lords led by Duke William of Normandy. The reason was William's claim to the English throne, based on his relationship with the Anglo-Saxon king Edward the Confessor, who died in early 1066. In addition to the Norman barons, feudal lords from other regions of France also took part in the invasion. Having crossed the English Channel on sailing ships, William's army landed in the south of England on September 28. The decisive battle between the troops of William and the new Anglo-Saxon king Harold took place on October 14 near Hastings. The outcome of the battle was decided by the Norman cavalry, which destroyed most of the Anglo-Saxons fighting on foot. Harold fell in battle. On December 25, William was crowned with the Anglo-Saxon crown (see William I the Conqueror).

As a result of the conquest, the French military-feudal system was transferred to England. Through the arts, the most slender and most centralized feudal hierarchical ladder in Europe was created. All land was recognized as the property of the crown. Feudal lords could only be holders of land from the king. The distribution of fiefs to the associates of William the Conqueror was made possible thanks to the confiscations of the lands of the Anglo-Saxon nobility. At the same time, the possessions of the barons were scattered in different counties, which prevented the formation of independent territories of the principalities. The establishment of strong royal power was also facilitated by the preservation of approximately 1/7 of the lands directly in the hands of the crown. As a result of the conquest, the remaining free peasants were finally subjugated to the seigneurial authorities. Most of the peasant holders were reduced to the position of serfs (villans). Thus N. z. Africa contributed to the completion of the process of feudalization, which began in the Anglo-Saxon period.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB. 2012

Background to the Norman Invasion of England

It is known that England suffered greatly from the constant invasions of the Vikings. The Anglo-Saxon king Ethelred was looking for someone who would help him fight against the Vikings; he saw such an ally in the Normans, and in order to conclude an alliance with them he married the sister of the Norman Duke, Emma. But he did not receive the promised help, which is why he left the country and took refuge in Normandy in 1013.
Three years later, all of England was conquered by the Vikings, and Canute the Great became their king. He united all of England, Norway and Denmark under his rule. Meanwhile, Æthelred's sons were thirty years in exile at the Norman court.
In 1042, one of Ethelred's sons, Edward, regained the English throne. Edward himself was childless and there was no direct heir to the throne, then he proclaimed the Norman Duke William as his heir. In 1052, power returned to the Anglo-Saxons. In 1066, Edward dies, which means William should become his heir, but the Anglo-Saxons, for their part, appoint Harold II as king.
Duke William, of course, contested this election and made his claim to the throne of England. This was the beginning of the Norman conquest of England.

Strengths of the parties

Anglo-Saxons
Their army was quite large, perhaps the largest army in all of Western Europe, but its problem was that it was poorly organized. Harold didn't even have a fleet at his disposal.
The core of Harold's army were the elite warriors of the housecarls, their number reached three thousand. In addition to them, there were a huge number of thegns (serving nobility) and an even larger number of firds (militia).
The big problem of the Anglo-Saxons was the almost complete lack of archers and cavalry, which later played, perhaps, a key role in their defeat.
Normandy
The backbone of William's army was made up of heavily armed and well-trained mounted knights. There were also a considerable number of archers in the army. Most of William's army were mercenaries; there weren't that many Normans themselves.
In addition, it should be noted that William himself was a brilliant tactician and had great knowledge of the art of war, and was also famous in the ranks of his army as a brave knight.
The total number of soldiers, according to historians, did not exceed 7-8 thousand. Harold's army was much larger, at least 20 thousand soldiers.
Norman invasion
The official beginning of the Norman invasion of England is considered to be the Battle of Hastings, which became a key moment in this campaign.
On October 14, 1066, the two armies clashed at Hastings. Harold had at his disposal a larger army than William. But brilliant tactical talent, Harold's mistakes, attacks by the Norman cavalry and the death of Harold himself in battle enabled William to win a brilliant victory.
After the battle, it became clear that there was no one left in the country who would lead the country in the fight against William, since everyone who could do this remained lying on the battlefield of Hastings.
In the same year, due to the limited Anglo-Saxon resistance, on December 25, William the First was proclaimed King of England; the coronation took place in Westminster Abbey. At first, the power of the Normans in England was strengthened only by military force; the people had not yet recognized the new king. In 1067, his position in the country became stronger, which allowed him to make a short trip to his native Normandy.
Only the southeastern lands of the country were under the complete control of William; the rest of the lands rebelled when he left for Normandy. A particularly large uprising took place in the southwestern lands. In 1068, another uprising began in the north of the country. Wilhelm had to act quickly and decisively, which he did. Having quickly taken York and built a number of castles in the north of England, he managed to stop the rebellion.
In 1069, another uprising began, this time the nobles were supported by the peasants. The rebels recaptured York, but William and his army brutally dealt with the rebels and recaptured York.
In the autumn of the same year, a Danish army landed on the coast of England and declared its claims to the throne. At the same time, uprisings of the last major Anglo-Saxon nobles broke out throughout northern and central England. This uprising was also supported by France. Thus, Wilhelm found himself in a difficult situation, surrounded by three enemies. But William had a very powerful cavalry army and at the end of the same year he regained control of Northern England, and the Danish army returned to the ships.
To avoid a repeat of the possibility of uprisings, William ravaged the north of England. His troops burned villages, crops and residents were forced to leave Northern England. After this, all the nobles submitted to him.
After William bought the Danes in 1070, Anglo-Saxon resistance became greatly threatened. Wilhelm destroyed the last rebel forces on the island of Ili. He surrounded them and starved them out.
It was the fall of the last Anglo-Saxon nobles that marked the end of the Norman conquest of England. After this, the Anglo-Saxons no longer had a single aristocrat who could lead them into battle.

Consequences

The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were destroyed and power passed to the Normans. William founded a powerful country with a strong centralized king - England. Very soon, his newly created state would become the strongest in Europe for a long time, whose military strength it would be foolish not to take into account. And the whole world learned that the English cavalry had now become the decisive force on the battlefield.

“Rule Britain over the seas,” proclaims the refrain of the famous English patriotic song written back in 1740, which is already perceived as the second, unofficial anthem of this country, and the title “Mistress of the Seas” seems to have forever become synonymous with the second name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Nelson’s contemporary, the English admiral St. Vincent, stated: “I am not saying that the enemy cannot come here. I’m just saying that he can’t come by sea.” The narrow strip of sea water separating the British Isles from the continent became an insurmountable barrier for the Catholic kings of Spain, Napoleon and Hitler. But this was not always the case. In 43 AD. The Romans came to Britain and remained there until 409. They were replaced by Germanic tribes, which, having displaced the indigenous population, settled entire provinces: the Angles settled in the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons - in the south (the kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex), The Jutes occupied the lands around Kent. In the north, two mixed kingdoms appeared - Mercia and Northumbria. The Britons retreated west into the mountainous region that the Saxons called Wales (Wales - land of strangers) or went to Scotland. Since the end of the 8th century, these small and constant kingdoms at war with each other became easy prey for new, even more terrible enemies - the Norwegian and Danish Vikings, who divided Britain into spheres of influence. The Norwegians got northern Scotland, Ireland and northwestern England, the Danes got Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The successes of the Danes were so great that a vast region in the east of England began to be called Denlo or “the area of Danish law.” Wessex survived only thanks to the treaty that King Alfred the Great concluded with the Danes, but the price of independence was very high: for a very long time, military taxes in England were called “Danish money.” Alfred's wise policy, however, yielded results, and his successors eventually managed to subjugate Denlo and even the Scots (it is from this precedent that England's claims to Scotland originate). Everything changed under King Ethelred the Unreasonable (978-1016), who was forced to give up the throne to the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. In 1042, the Danish dynasty was interrupted, and the last representative of the Wessex dynasty, who entered under the name Edward the Confessor, was elected to the English throne. The desire for legitimacy played a cruel joke on the British: it seems impossible to imagine a more unsuitable candidate for the post of king. In terms of his personal qualities, Edward was similar to our Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich; his reign was marked by the weakening of royal power in the country and the omnipotence of the magnates, the disintegration of Anglo-Saxon society and the weakening of the state's defense capability. The founding and urgent needs of Westminster Abbey interested Edward much more than the problems of the country he unexpectedly inherited. He was the eldest son of King Ethelred II of England and Emma of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. As a child, his mother took him to Normandy, where he lived for 25 years. Edward practically did not know the country of his ancestors and at first relied on immigrants from Normandy, to whom he granted lands and church positions (including the Archbishop of Canterbury), which, naturally, caused sharp discontent among the Anglo-Saxon nobility. In 1050, Edward made the fateful decision to disband the English fleet and abolish the defense tax - “Danish money”. It was this circumstance that became one of the reasons for the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy in 1066. But let’s not get ahead of ourselves.

William the Conqueror

In the meantime, the military service nobility of Anglo-Danish origin gradually united around Earl of Wessex Godwin, who at the beginning of Edward's reign was expelled from England, but returned to his homeland in triumph in 1052. The rulers of other provinces refused to give Edward troops, the “council of the wise” (witenagemot) completely acquitted Godwin, the king’s Norman associates were expelled from England, and Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury, was removed from his post. From that time on, King Edward completely withdrew from participation in politics, devoting himself to the church. After the death of Godwin (1053), power in the country actually belonged to his son Harold, who managed to annex East Anglia and Northumberland (transferred to his brother Tostig) to his possessions. Meanwhile, another dynastic crisis was brewing in England: Edward had no children, but there were more than enough contenders for his throne. The official heir, according to the will, was considered the Norman Duke William, whose candidacy, however, was absolutely unacceptable for the overwhelming majority of the English. Harold and his brother Tostig claimed the throne as the queen's siblings, their rivalry ending in Tostig's exile from the country. It was Harold Godwinson, who proved himself to be a wise and fair ruler and was very popular among the people, who was unanimously elected as the new king of the country. On January 7, 1066, he was anointed, receiving from the hands of the Archbishop of Canterbury a golden crown, a scepter and a heavy battle ax. The offended Tostig went to another contender - the Danish king Sven Estridsson, the nephew of the last English king of the Danish dynasty, but he did not show any interest in English affairs. After failure in Denmark, Tostig turned for help to King Harald the Harsh of Norway, son-in-law of Yaroslav the Wise, renowned commander and famous skald. Harald quickly figured out the situation: taking with him his wife, son Olav and two daughters, he set off to the shores of England on 300 ships. It seemed he had no intention of returning home. And ceding the conquered country to Tostig was hardly part of his plans. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Duke William, offended by the “treachery” of Harold Godwinson, was gathering troops. The fact is that Harold was once captured by William, who held him until he forced him to swear allegiance to himself as the rightful heir to the English crown. The chronicles say that William ordered the relics and relics from all the monasteries and churches of Normandy to be collected together and placed them under the breviary, on which his prisoner had to swear. At the end of the procedure, William tore the veil off the box with the holy relics and only then did Harold realize what oath he had just taken: “and many saw how gloomy he became after that.” Now Harold said that he did not recognize his forced promise, and that he could not give up power against the will of the country. Wilhelm began to prepare for war. Wanting to give legitimacy to his claims, he secured the verdict of the Pope that England should belong to him. Thus, the campaign of conquest acquired the character of a crusade, and many knights of France and surrounding countries joined William’s army, hoping to save their souls, glorify themselves with exploits and gain unheard-of riches, generously promised to them by the Duke of Normandy. It is interesting that, despite the verdict of the Pope, in the surrounding countries, it seems, Harold was still considered the legitimate ruler: on the famous tapestry from Bayeux (Southern England, 1066-1082), which reflected the official version of events, Harold's title is rex, that is, king.

The first blow to England was struck by Harald the Severe: the northeast wind, which drove his ships to the British Isles, prevented the Norman fleet from going to sea. Having visited the Orkney Islands along the way, where many local residents stood under the banner of the successful king, in mid-September 1066 the longships dropped anchor on the small river Ouse, north of York, and the ferocious Norwegian berserkers set foot on English soil for the last time. After the Battle of Fulford (September 20, 1066), where the militia of the northern English counties were defeated by the Norwegians, Northumbria recognized the power of Harald, and some of the local thegns joined his army. Harold and his army, meanwhile, were in the south of the country, where they were awaiting the landing of the Normans. The Norwegian invasion confused all his plans and forced him, leaving his positions on the coast, to move against the Scandinavians. Harald by that time had moved too far from his ships, and his army was divided into two parts. Raising the "danger on land" flag and quickly forming his troops, Harald entered the battle. The battle at Stamford Bridge lasted all day. The set of sagas “The Circle of the Earth” says that in that battle Harald fought like a berserker: “coming forward from the ranks, he cut with a sword, holding it with both hands. Neither helmets nor chain mail were protection from him. Everyone who stood in his way jumped back. The British were close to fleeing." But “the arrow hit King Harald, son of Sigurd, in the throat. The wound was fatal. He fell, and with him all who went ahead with him.” After this, the British invited the Norwegians to sail to their homeland, but they declared that “they would all rather die one by one.” The battle was renewed two more times. Following Harald, Tostig and Eystein Grouse, who came up with help, died. “Eystein and his men hurried from the ships so quickly that they were exhausted to the limit and hardly capable of fighting; but soon they were seized with such rage that they stopped covering themselves with shields while they were able to stand on their feet... Thus, almost all the main people among the Norwegians died,” Snorri Sturlson wrote about these events. The Norwegians were defeated, the Anglo-Saxons pursued them along a path of 20 km. In manuscript "C" of the 12th century Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. describes the feat of the last hero of the Viking Age: “The Norwegians fled from the English, but a certain Norwegian stood alone against the entire English army, so the English could not cross the bridge and win. One of the English shot an arrow at him, but missed. Then another climbed under the bridge and hit the Norwegian from below, where the chain mail did not cover him.” Of the nearly 300 Norwegian ships, 24 returned to their homeland, one of which carried Elizabeth and her children.

The British victory was brilliant, but it came with the death of many soldiers and commanders. Moreover, it was at this time that the wind changed and on September 28 (just three days after the bloody battle at Stamford Bridge), William was able to freely land his army in Pevensey Bay, Sussex County, between Pevensey Castle and Hastings. They say that the Duke slipped while leaving the ship and fell forward on both hands. Quickly standing up, he exclaimed: “Look! By the grace of God I grabbed England with both hands. Now she is mine, and therefore also yours.”

William ascended the throne at the age of 7 or 8 and by the time of the invasion of England had a reputation as a very skillful and experienced ruler and commander. In preparation for the main campaign of his life, he created a magnificent army of about 12,000 people (which, by the scale of that time, was a very formidable force), which, admittedly, under his leadership acted very harmoniously and highly organized. The landing on the shore took place in exemplary order: Norman archers dressed in light armor carried out reconnaissance of the area and subsequently covered the unloading of horses, equipment and cargo. In one day, carpenters in William's army assembled a wooden castle delivered by ship (the first Norman castle in England!), which became the support base for the invasion. Two more castles were soon collected from Hastings. The mounted knights moved deep into enemy territory, destroying everything in their path. Having learned about the Norman landing, Harold hastily moved his troops towards the new enemy. In London, he decided to replenish his troops with soldiers from the southern and central counties, but six days later, having learned about the atrocities committed by the invaders on the coast of his country, in a rage, without waiting for the arrival of all the units loyal to him, he set out to meet William. Many considered this a mistake, but the victory over the Norwegians gave Harold confidence. Hopes to take the Normans by surprise were not justified: his army stumbled upon one of the enemy’s cavalry detachments, which warned William about the English troops approaching him. Therefore, Harold changed tactics, and stopped at a hill about 12 km from the Norman army. He was advised to retreat to London, devastating the lands on his way, and a number of historians consider this tactic to be the only correct one. The Normans' prepared supplies would very soon run out, and near London, the invaders, suffering from hunger and having lost some of their horses, would have been faced with a meeting with the English army, which had rested and been replenished with new troops. However, Harold "decided not to burn the houses and villages and not to withdraw his troops."

Together with Harold, his brothers came to Hastings, one of whom (Girt) on the eve of the battle addressed him with the words: “My brother! You cannot deny that, albeit by force and not by free will, you took the oath to Duke William on the holy relics. Why risk the outcome of the battle by breaking this oath? For us, who did not take any oaths, this is a holy and just war for our country. Let us fight the enemy alone, and may the one on whose side is the truth win the battle.” However, Harold stated that he “does not intend to watch others risk their lives for him. The soldiers will consider him a coward and accuse him of sending his best friends where he did not dare to go himself.”

Modern historians believe that the Norman and English armies were approximately equal in size, but had very serious differences in composition and combat characteristics. William's troops were a typical feudal army, which was recruited on the basis of the military-feudal system and included a fairly large number of well-armed knights, both Norman and warriors from other countries who joined them. Another important difference between the Norman army was the large number of archers, who were almost absent from the ranks of the British. Most of the Anglo-Saxon army consisted of militia units of free peasants (fyrd), who were armed mainly with axes, pitchforks, and even clubs and “stones tied to sticks.” The king's squad (the famous housecarls) and the detachments of the serving nobility (thegns) were armed in the Scandinavian style: heavy two-handed swords, traditional Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail. It was the “Danish axes,” which easily cut through Norman helmets and armor, that turned out to be the most terrible and effective of the British. In his memoirs, one of the chaplains of William's army called them "deadly axes." However, these elite troops had suffered heavy losses in the previous battle and were weary from the long marches from the south coast of England to York and back. Cavalry as a branch of the army did not exist in the English army: while traveling on horseback, housecarls and thegns fought on foot. Given these circumstances, Harold chose defensive tactics: he positioned his troops on the top of a hill; in the rear of his troops there was a dense forest, which, in case of retreat, could serve as an obstacle to the enemy army pursuing him. The housecarls and thegns stood in the first ranks, followed by lightly armed infantry. In front of the formation, the British built barricades from wooden shields and logs and dug a ditch. Participants in the battle later recalled that “in no other area did so many foreign warriors die as at the bottom of this ditch.” The natives of Kent volunteered to be the first to meet the enemy and stood in the most dangerous direction. The people of London asked for the right to defend the king and his standard, and lined up around Harold. Subsequently, on the site where Harold's army stood, Battle Abbey was built, the ruins of which can be seen near the small town of the same name. The main altar was located where the royal standard was located during the battle. Now this place is marked with a memorial stone slab.

Wilhelm, apparently, was still not entirely confident in the success of the upcoming battle. One way or another, it was he who on October 13 sent the monk Hugo Maigro to the English camp, who first demanded Harold’s abdication of the throne, and then, in exchange for a vassal oath, offered him the entire country above the Humber River, and to his brother Girth all the lands that belonged to Godwin. In case of refusal, Maigro had to threaten Harold and his army with excommunication, which is allegedly stated in the bull of the Pope. The Norman chronicles claim that this threat caused confusion among the English commanders. However, after a moment of silence, one of them said: “We must fight, no matter what it threatens us with... The Norman has already divided our lands between his barons, knights and other people... he will make them the masters of our property, our wives and daughters. Everything has already been divided in advance. They came not just to defeat us, but to deprive us of everything and our descendants and take away from us the lands of our ancestors. And what will we do, where should we go, if we no longer have our country?” After this, the British unanimously decided to fight the foreign invaders. The night before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons sang national songs, the Normans prayed in chorus.

The battle that decided the fate of England began on the morning of October 14, 1066. The chronicles of that time brought to us the words addressed by the leaders of the opposing sides to their armies. Duke William urged his soldiers not to be distracted by collecting trophies, assuring that the booty would be shared and there would be enough for everyone. “We will not find salvation if we stop or run from the battlefield,” he said, “The English will never agree to live in peace and share power with the Normans... Do not have mercy on them, because they will not spare you. They will not differentiate between those who cowardly fled from the battlefield and those who fought bravely. Everyone will be treated the same. You can try to retreat to the sea, but there will be nowhere else to run, there will be no ships there, no crossing to your homeland. The sailors won't wait for you. The British will capture you on the shore and put you to a shameful death. More people die in flight than in battle. And since running will not save your life, fight and you will win.” Dressed in armor, he put on his chain mail backwards and, noticing how the faces of his comrades darkened, said: “I have never believed and do not believe in omens. I believe in God, who determines the course of events by his will. And everything that happens will be His will. I have never believed in soothsayers and fortune tellers. I entrust myself to the will of the Mother of God. And don’t let this oversight of mine bother you. My change of clothes means that we are all on the verge of change. You yourself will witness how I will turn from a duke into a king.” Harold, in turn, urged the soldiers to stand in battle, defending their land, and urged them to stick together, protecting each other in the ranks. “The Normans,” he said, “are loyal vassals and brave warriors, both on foot and on horseback. Their mounted knights have already participated in battles more than once. If they manage to break into our ranks, then everything will be lost for us. They fight with a long spear and sword. But we also have spears and axes. And I don't think their weapons can stand up to ours. Strike where you can strike, do not spare your strength and weapons.”

Tapestry from Bayeux. Attack of the Norman Knights

The battle began with Norman archers, who showered the ranks of the English with their arrows, but they were unable to inflict heavy losses on the enemy soldiers hiding behind wide shields. Having shot the ammunition, the riflemen retreated behind the line of spearmen, who went on the offensive, but were driven back by the British. The cavalry attack also floundered, and the Bretons on the left flank fled. Forgetting about Harold's order to hold formation, the Anglo-Saxons, leaving the hill, rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy and came under attack from the knight's cavalry. Historians disagree about the deliberateness of the Breton retreat: some consider this maneuver a military stratagem, others, citing the testimony of one of the chroniclers, explain it by the panic that gripped some of the Normans at the news of William’s death. Other participants in the events report that at that moment the squires, who were in the rear of the fighting army, guarding the property of the knights, almost ran away and were stopped by Duke William's brother, Bishop Odo of Bayeux. Wilhelm had to take off his helmet and gallop along the ranks of his army. One way or another, part of the English army that recklessly abandoned the hill was surrounded and destroyed at its foot, but others continued to stand, holding back the enemy. For several more hours, the Normans alternated shelling from bows and crossbows with foot and horse attacks. The archers changed their tactics: now they shot along a suspended trajectory so that the arrows fell on their opponents from above, hitting them in the face. This resulted in significant losses, but at the beginning of the evening Harold's army still held its position on the hill, although the fatigue of the British from constant bombardment and continuous attacks was such that many of them could hardly stand on their feet. It was at this moment that a stray arrow hit Harold in the eye. He pulled it out and broke it, but now, due to the severe pain and blood pouring into his face, the king could not control the course of the battle. The Anglo-Saxons, deprived of their command, broke formation, and the Norman cavalry crashed into their ranks. William personally took part in the battle, and all contemporaries note the courage and extraordinary military skill of the duke, under whom two horses were killed. The Norman chronicles report that the warriors of Kent and Essex fought especially staunchly and bravely in the ranks of the English. The decisive attack on them was led by Duke William: about a thousand horsemen in close formation attacked the British and scattered them. In that attack, many noble warriors on both sides died, but the Normans broke through to the royal banner, where King Harold stood, fighting to the end. During the last battle, he received so many wounds that his body could only be identified by his wife Edith Lebyazhya Neck by some signs known only to her. Along with Harold, his brothers also died. After this, the militia units (fird) fled, but the housecarls still continued to stand around the body of the deceased king. By nightfall the Normans had captured the hill, but it was not the war that was lost, but only the battle. The tragedy of the British was that there was no one to gather the retreating troops and lead further resistance. But it was quite possible: the Normans lost at least a quarter of the army in battle, while the British, despite the losses they suffered, could hope to replenish their ranks with soldiers who did not have time to approach the start of the battle. On the evening of the same day, Duke William himself almost died in the forest while pursuing the retreating housecarls. The surviving English earl Valtjov that same night, having lured about a hundred Normans into an oak grove, ordered it to be set on fire; not one of the invaders managed to get out of the burning forest. However, after Harold's heroic death, the British were unable to choose a worthy leader and, when William's troops approached London, Harold's nephew, elected king, was the first to talk about surrendering the capital. He himself came to the Norman camp and swore allegiance to William. Meanwhile, Harold's three sons and two daughters fled to the western family domains. Only in 1068, the city of Exeter, where they took refuge, was taken by William’s army after a three-month siege, but on the eve of the decisive assault, Harold’s mother (who was 70 years old!), Edith and her children climbed down the fortress wall by rope and left England. Harold's sons went to Ireland and harassed the Normans with raids for another 10 years. And one of Harold’s daughters, Gita, ended up in Denmark; she later married Vladimir Monomakh (1074).

As the British feared, in addition to his inheritance, William divided England into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and ordinary soldiers, obliging them to perform military service and pay taxes for this. The inhabitants of the conquered country were treated by the Normans as slaves. No one, neither a noble earl nor a simple farmer, could feel safe on his land and in his home. Resistance was suppressed extremely brutally: entire villages were burned, families were destroyed. To keep the country's population in obedience, 78 castles were built during William's reign, including the famous Tower. Only a few generations later, the differences between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons were erased, and modern English was formed on the basis of the French language of the conquerors and the “northern” language of the indigenous population. Gradually, the conquerors and the conquered population mixed closely with each other, subsequently creating one of the greatest empires in the history of world civilizations. “The English combine Anglo-Saxon practicality, Celtic dreaminess, the pirate courage of the Vikings and the discipline of the Normans,” said the Austrian writer Paul Cohen-Portheim about the modern English national character.

Tapestry. End of the 11th century.

In 1066 a significant event occurred: England was conquered by the Normans...

We are talking about defeated Scandinavian guys who, starting somewhere in the 8th century, committed predatory attacks on France, England, Scotland, etc. The guys were hot and quite greedy. But something constantly pulled them to their homeland, so, having had their fill of outrages, they returned home with substantial booty.

However, from the 9th century, the Normans took the matter seriously and began to gain a foothold in the conquered territories. As a result, in the second half of the 800s, Danish and Norwegian Vikings, led by the brave Hrolf the Pedestrian (or Rollon), settled in camps on the coast of northern France, which is now, not unreasonably, called Normandy. From there they raided inland.

Hrolf Pedestrian. One of the statues of the monument to the six Dukes of Normandy in the park in Falaise, France.

The King of France, Charles III, nicknamed the Rustic, was unable to cope with these warlike monsters, because he already had many problems. Therefore, in 911 he entered into negotiations with Hrolf. To cajole the warrior, he offered him the hand of his daughter Gisela (this was the lot of princesses of that time - to lie under those with whom daddy wants to establish relations) and part of the coastal territories. But on condition that he (as well as his guys) accept Christianity.

Charles III Rustic

The Viking divorced his pagan wife and was baptized under the name Roberta. After which he entered into a legal marriage with Gisela and became Duke of Normandy. The northerners quickly became French, adopted the language and culture of their new homeland and were quite happy with their fate. And about 150 years later (that is, in 1066), Hrolf's descendant William conquered England.

William I the Conqueror. Portrait 1580

What is significant about the accession of the Duke of Normandy to England? Decisively to everyone: he created a centralized state, army, navy and much more. But the main thing for us is that the Normans radically changed the course of the further development of the English language. Since their arrival, England became a trilingual country for about three hundred years: French became the language of the court, administration and culture (that is, a prestigious language, like French in 19th-century Russia); Latin - the language of the church, scholarship and philosophy; Well, English... English remained the language of the people and a means of expressing personal experiences. Naturally, an incredible number of words have migrated from French and Latin to English, with which those who, for example, are going to take the GRE exam, which is necessary for admission to an English-language university, are now struggling so much (in this exam in the Vocabulary section, the vast majority of “cool” words are French -Latin origin).

To illustrate this, I suggest turning to cooking, because in this area the influence of the French language is obvious. As you might guess, the aristocracy during this period consisted mainly of Normans, who, of course, were not averse to eating delicious food. The food earners were simple local guys. And here a curious thing arises: the animal, while it is merrily grazing on the lawn or frolicking on the forest edge, is called an English word, but when it is already well fried and seasoned with garlic, it appears on the master’s table - French. Hence we have: cow (cow) - beef (boeuf beef), calf (calf) - veal (veal veal), deer (deer) - venison (venari venison) and sheep (lamb) - mutton (mouton lamb). This, by the way, was very well reflected by Sir Walter Scott in the novel Ivanhoe.