Type lit. Types of literature and their purpose

Literary type

The concept of “literary type” first appears in Hegel’s Aesthetics. In literary theory, “type” and “character” are close, but not interchangeable; “character” to a greater extent reveals the typical personality traits, its psychological properties, and “type” is a generalization of certain social phenomena and is associated with typical traits. For example, Maxim Maksimych is a typical Russian soldier, “just a decent person,” as L.N. Tolstoy said about him, while Grigory Aleksandrovich Pechorin is a type of “suffering egoist,” the embodiment of “the vices of an entire generation in their full development.”

The concept of “typing” includes the process of creating a holistic picture of the world and is the basis of the creative process.

Recognizing typification as an internal need and a law of art, writers realize that the typical is not a copy of reality, but an artistic generalization.

In Moliere, Harpagon and Tartuffe are typical characters, but these are not social, but psychological types, illustrating neglect of the requirements of morality. If we want to call someone a miser or a hypocrite, we use these proper names as common nouns.

V. G. Belinsky in the article “On the Russian story and the stories of Mr. Gogol” defines the typifying features of a literary hero: “Don’t say: here is a man with a huge soul, with ardent passions, with an extensive mind, but a limited reason, who loves so madly his wife, that he is ready to strangle her with his hands at the slightest suspicion of infidelity - say more simply and briefly: here is Othello!.. Don’t say: here is an official who is vile by conviction, malicious with good intentions, criminal in good faith - say: here is Famusov!

The schematism of classic images is associated with the intentional intention of the authors to use the example of a particular character to illustrate ethical and aesthetic principles. That is why the image, reduced to a theoretical premise, is marked by maximum typicality. However, an image that bears any one dominant feature, while winning in typicality, often loses in artistry.

The aesthetics of classicism are based on the principles of rationalism. Classicists affirm the view of a work of art as a creation that is consciously created, intelligently organized, and logically provable. Having put forward the principle of “imitation of nature,” classicists consider compliance with known rules and restrictions to be an indispensable condition. The goal of art is the artistic transformation of nature, the transformation of nature into a beautiful and ennobled aesthetic reality.

The strict hierarchy of genres of classicism also gives rise to the normalization of literary types. Social conflicts appear in the work reflected in the souls of the heroes. The division of characters into positive and negative in classic aesthetics is natural. There should be no intermediate types, since art is charged with the task of correcting vices and glorifying the virtues of an ideal person.

Playwrights of the classic era turn to Aristotle, who argued that tragedy “seeks to portray better people than those currently existing.” The heroes of classic plays are forced to struggle with circumstances that, as in the tragedy of antiquity, cannot be prevented. In the classic version of the conflict, the resolution of the tragic situation now depends not on fate, but on the titanic will of the hero, personifying the author’s ideal.

According to the poetics of the genre, the heroes of the tragedy could be mythological characters, monarchs, generals, persons who determined by their will the fate of many people and even an entire nation. It is they who embody the main requirement - to sacrifice selfish interests in the name of the common good. As a rule, the content of character in a tragedy comes down to one essential trait. It determined the moral and psychological appearance of the hero. Thus, in Sumarokov’s tragedies, Kiy (“Khorev”) and Mstislav (“Mstislav”) are depicted by the playwright only as monarchs who violated their duty to their subjects; Khorev, Truvor, Vysheslav are like heroes who know how to control their feelings and subordinate them to the dictates of duty. Character in classicism is not depicted on its own, but is given in relation to the opposite property. The conflict between duty and feeling, caused by a dramatic combination of circumstances, made the characters of the heroes of the tragedies similar, and sometimes indistinguishable.

In the works of classicism, especially in comedy, the main character trait of the hero is fixed in his behavior and in his name. For example, the image of Pravdin cannot show at least any flaw, and Svinin cannot show the slightest dignity. Vice or virtue take on a specific figurative form in Fonvizin’s comedies: the prude Zhekhvat, the braggart Verkholet.

In the literature of sentimentalism, the emphasis is transferred from the environment to the person, to the sphere of his spiritual life. Preference is given to characters in which “sensitivity” predominates. Sentimentality, according to G. Pospelov’s definition, “is a more complex state, caused mainly by the ideological understanding of a certain inconsistency in the social characters of people. Sensitivity is a personal psychological phenomenon; sentimentality has a general cognitive meaning.” Sentimentality of experience is the ability to recognize in the external insignificance of the lives of other people, and sometimes in one’s own life, something internally significant. This feeling requires the hero’s mental reflection (emotional contemplation, the ability of introspection). A striking example of a sentimental character is Werther Goethe. The title of the novel is symptomatic - “The Sorrows of Young Werther.” In Goethe's work, suffering is perceived not as a chain of unfortunate events, but as a spiritual experience that can purify the hero's soul and ennoble his feelings. The author did not idealize his hero. At the end of work on the novel, Goethe wrote that he portrayed “a young man immersed in extravagant dreams” who “perishes... as a result of unhappy passions.”

After a century of “thinking” (as Voltaire called the Age of Enlightenment), authors and readers felt that thought, a logically proven idea does not exhaust the potential of the individual: you can put forward a spectacular idea for improving the world, but this is not enough to correct a vicious world. The era of romanticism is coming. In its content, art reflects the rebellious spirit of man. The romantic theory of genius crystallizes in literature. “Genius and villainy are two incompatible things” - this phrase from Pushkin defines the main types of characters in romanticism. Poets discovered the unusual complexity, depth of the spiritual world of man, the inner infinity of the individual.

Intense interest in strong feelings and secret movements of the soul, in the mysterious side of the universe, gives rise to an exceptionally intense psychologism of images. The craving for the intuitive encourages writers to imagine heroes in extreme situations and to persistently comprehend the hidden sides of nature. The romantic hero lives by imagination, not reality. Special psychological types are emerging: rebels who oppose a high ideal to a triumphant reality; villains who tempt man with omnipotence and omniscience; musicians (gifted people capable of penetrating the world of ideas). Many Romantic heroes become literary myths, symbolizing the thirst for knowledge (Faust), uncompromising devotion (Quasimodo) or absolute evil (Cain). In romanticism, as in sentimentalism, the extra-class value of a person is decisive in assessing the character of a literary hero. That is why the authors deliberately weaken the fact of a person’s dependence on circumstances caused by social conflicts. The lack of motivation of character is explained by its predetermination and self-sufficiency. “One but fiery passion” guides the actions of the heroes.

At the center of romantic aesthetics is a creative subject, a genius who rethinks reality, or a villain who is convinced of the infallibility of his vision of reality. Romanticism professes the cult of individualism, emphasizing not the universal, but the exclusive.

The basis of the literary characterology of realism is the social type. The psychological discoveries of romanticism are supported in realism by a broad social and historical analysis and ideological motivation for the hero’s behavior. The character, as a rule, is determined by circumstances and environment.

In Russian realistic literature, types of literary heroes emerge that have common characterological features, their behavior is determined by similar circumstances, and the disclosure of the image in the text is based on traditional plot collisions and motives. The most striking were the “extra man,” “little man,” and “simple man.”

When reading works of fiction, we first of all pay attention to its main characters. All of them have clear characteristics in literary theory. We will find out which ones exactly from this article.

The word "image" in Russian literary criticism has several meanings.

Firstly, all art is figurative, i.e. reality is recreated by the artist with the help of images. In the image, the general, the generic is revealed through the individual and transformed. In this sense, we can say: the image of the Motherland, the image of nature, the image of man, i.e. depiction in artistic form of the Motherland, nature, man.

Secondly, at the linguistic level of the work, the image is identical to the concept of “trope”. In this case, we are talking about metaphor, comparison, hyperbole, etc., i.e. about figurative means of poetic language. If you imagine the figurative structure of the work, then the first figurative layer is the image-details. From them grows a second figurative layer, consisting of actions, events, moods, i.e. everything that unfolds dynamically in time. The third layer is images of characters and circumstances, heroes who find themselves in conflicts. From the images of the third layer a holistic image of fate and the world is formed, i.e. concept of being.

The image of a hero is an artistic generalization of human properties, character traits in the individual appearance of the hero. A hero can inspire admiration or repel, commit actions, act. An image is an artistic category. You cannot, for example, say: “I despise the image of Molchalin.” One can despise the silent type, but his image as an artistic phenomenon evokes admiration for the skill of Griboyedov. Sometimes, instead of the concept of “image,” the concept of “character” is used.

The concept of "character" is broader than the concept of "image". A character is any character in a work. You cannot say “lyrical character” instead of “lyrical hero”. A lyrical hero is an image of a hero in a lyrical work, whose experiences, feelings, thoughts reflect the author’s worldview. This is the artistic “double” of the author-poet, who has his own inner world, his own destiny. The lyrical hero is not an autobiographical image, although he reflects personal experiences, attitudes towards different aspects of the life of the author himself. The lyrical hero embodies the spiritual world of the author and his contemporaries. The lyrical hero of A. S. Pushkin is a harmonious, spiritually rich personality who believes in love and friendship , optimistic in her outlook on life. Another lyrical hero of M. Yu. Lermontov. This is the “son of suffering”, disappointed in reality, lonely, romantically striving for freedom and freedom and tragically not finding them. Characters, like heroes, can be the main ones. and minor ones, but when applied to episodic characters, only the term “character” is used.

Often, a character is understood as a minor person who does not influence events, and a literary hero is a multifaceted character drawn, important for expressing the idea of ​​a work. You can come across the judgment that a hero is only that character who carries positive principles and is an exponent of the author’s ideal (Chatsky, Tatyana Larina, Bolkonsky, Katerina). The statement that negative satirical characters (Plyushkin, Judushka Golovlev, Kabanikha) are not heroes is incorrect. Here two concepts are mixed - the hero as a character and the heroic as a way of human behavior.

The satirical hero of a work is a character, a character against whom the edge of satire is directed. Naturally, such a hero is unlikely to be capable of heroic deeds, i.e. is not a hero in the behavioral sense of the word. In the creative process of creating images of heroes, some of them embody the most characteristic features of a given time and environment. Such an image is called a literary type.

A literary type is a generalized image of human individuality, the most possible, characteristic of a certain social environment at a certain time. The literary type reflects the laws of social development. It combines two sides: the individual (single) and the general. Typical (and this is important to remember) does not mean average; a type always concentrates in itself everything that is most striking, characteristic of an entire group of people - social, national, age, etc. In literature, types of positive heroes (Tatiana Larina, Chatsky), “superfluous people” (Eugene Onegin, Pechorin), Turgenev girls have been created. In aesthetically perfect works, each type is a character.

Character is human individuality, consisting of certain spiritual, moral, mental traits. This is the unity of an emotional reaction, temperament, will and a type of behavior determined by the socio-historical situation and time (era). Character consists of diverse traits and qualities, but this is not a random combination of them. Each character has a main, dominant feature, which gives living unity to the entire variety of qualities and properties. The character in a work can be static, already formed and manifested in actions. But most often character is presented in change, in development, in evolution. A pattern emerges in the development of character. The logic of character development sometimes conflicts with the author’s intention (even A.S. Pushkin complained to Pushchin that Tatyana got married without his “knowledge”). Obeying this logic, the author cannot always turn the hero’s fate the way he wants.

Topic 19. The problem of the literary hero. Character, character, type

I. Dictionaries

Hero and character (plot function) 1) Sierotwiński S. Słownik terminów literackich. “ Hero. One of the central characters in a literary work, active in incidents that are fundamental to the development of the action, focusing attention on himself. Main hero. The literary character most involved in the action, whose fate is in the center of the plot” (S. 47). “The character is literary. A bearer of a constructive role in a work, autonomous and personified in the imagination (this can be a person, but also an animal, plant, landscape, utensil, fantastic creature, concept), involved in the action (hero) or only occasionally indicated (for example, a person, important for characterizing the environment). Taking into account the role of literary characters in the integrity of the work, we can divide them into main (foreground), secondary (secondary) and episodic, and from the point of view of their participation in the development of the plot - into incoming (active) and passive” (S. 200). 2) Wilpert G. von. Character (lat. figura - image)<...>4. anyone speaking in poetry, esp. in epic and drama, a fictitious person, also called a character; however, one should prefer the area of ​​“literary P.” in contrast to natural personalities and from often only outline characters” (S. 298). “ Hero, original embodiment of heroic deeds and virtues, which, thanks to exemplary behavior, evokes admiration, so in heroic poetry, epic, song And saga, repeatedly stemming from the ancient cult of heroes and ancestors. He assumes due to conditions of rank ändeklausel> high social origin. With the bourgeoisification of lit. in 18th century a representative of the social and characteristic turns into a genre role, so today in general the area for the main characters and roles of drama or epic poetry is the center of action without regard to social origin, gender or person. properties; therefore, also for unheroic, passive, problematic, negative G. or - antihero, which in modern lit. (with the exception of trivial literature and socialist realism) replaced the shining G. of early times as a sufferer or victim. - positive G., - protagonist, - negative G., - Antihero “(S. 365 - 366). 3) Dictionary of World Literary Terms / By J. Shipley. “ Hero. The central figure or protagonist in a literary work; a character with whom the reader or listeners sympathize” (p. 144). 4) The Longman Dictionary of Poetic Terms / By J. Myers, M. Simms. “ Hero(from Greek "protector") - originally a male - or female - heroine - whose supernatural abilities and character elevate him - or her - to the level of a god, demigod, or warrior king. The most common modern understanding of the term also implies a high moral character of a person whose courage, exploits and nobility of purpose make him or her uniquely admired. The term is also often incorrectly used as a synonym for the main character in literature” (p. 133). “ Protagonist(from Greek "first lead") in Greek classical drama, the actor who plays the first role. The term has come to mean the main or central character in a literary work, but one who may not be the hero. The protagonist confronts the one with whom he is in conflict, the antagonist” (p. 247). “ Minor hero(deuteragonist) (from Greek "minor character") is a character of secondary importance to the main character (protagonist) in classical Greek drama. Often a minor character is antagonist” (p. 78). 5) Cuddon J.A. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. “ Antihero. The "non-hero", or the antithesis of the old-fashioned hero, was capable of heroic deeds, dashing, strong, brave and resourceful. It is a little doubtful whether such a hero has ever existed in any quantity in fiction, with the exception of some pulp fiction and romantic novellas. However, there are many literary heroes who exhibit noble qualities and signs of virtue. An antihero is a person who is endowed with a tendency to fail. The antihero is incompetent, unsuccessful, tactless, clumsy, stupid and ridiculous” (p. 46). “ Hero and heroine. The main male and female characters in a literary work. In criticism, these terms do not have connotations of virtue or honor. Negative characters can also be central” (p. 406). 6) Chernyshev A. Character // Dictionary of literary terms. P. 267. “ P. (French personnage, from Latin persona - personality, face) - a character in a drama, novel, story and other works of art. The term "P." more often used in relation to minor characters.” 7) KLE. A) Baryshnikov E.P. Literary hero. T. 4. Stlb. 315-318. “L. G. - the image of a person in literature. The concepts “character” and “character” are often used unambiguously with L.G. Sometimes they are delimited: L. g. call the actors (characters) drawn more multifaceted and more significant for the idea of ​​​​the work. Sometimes the concept "L. G." refer only to characters close to the author’s ideal of a person (the so-called “positive hero”) or embodying the heroic. beginning (see Heroic in the literature). It should be noted, however, that in lit. criticism of these concepts, along with the concepts character, type and image are interchangeable.” “From the point of view. The figurative structure of a literary form combines character as the internal content of the character and his behavior and actions (as something external). Character allows us to consider the actions of the person portrayed as natural, going back to some vital reason; he is the content and the law ( motivation) behavior of L. g.” “Detective, adventure novel<...>- an extreme case, when the literary character becomes the main character, an unfilled shell, which merges with the plot, turning into its function.” b) Shopkeeper E.B. Character // T. 5. Stlb. 697-698. “ P. (French personage from Latin persona - face, personality) - in the usual meaning the same as literary hero. In literary studies, the term “P.” used in a narrower, but not always the same sense.<...>Most often, P. is understood as an actor. But here, too, two interpretations differ: 1) a person represented and characterized in action, and not in descriptions; then the concept of P. most of all corresponds to the heroes of drama, the images-roles.<...>2) Any actor, subject of action in general<...>In this interpretation, the protagonist is opposed only to the “pure” subject of experience appearing in the lyrics<...>That's why the term "P."<...>not applicable to the so-called “lyrical hero”: you cannot say “lyrical character”. P. is sometimes understood only as a minor person<...>In this interpretation, the term “P.” correlates with the narrowed meaning of the term “hero” - center. face or one of the center. persons of the work. On this basis, the expression “episodic P.” (and not “episodic hero”!)”. 8) LES. A) Maslovsky V.I. Literary hero. P. 195. “L. G., artist image, one of the designations of the integral existence of a person in the art of words. The term "L. G." has a double meaning. 1) It emphasizes dominance. the position of the character in the work (as main hero compared to character), indicating that the person bears the main problem-thematic load.<...>In some cases, the concept of “L. G." used to designate any character in a work. 2) Under the term “L. G." is understood holistic the image of a person - in the totality of his appearance, way of thinking, behavior and mental world; The term “character”, which is similar in meaning (see. Character), if you take it narrowly and not widen. meaning, denotes internal. psychol. cross-section of personality, its natural properties, nature.” b) [ B.a.] Character. P. 276. “ P. <...>usually the same as literary hero. In literary studies, the term “P.” used in a narrower, but not always the same sense, which is often revealed only in context.” 9) Ilyin I.P. Character // Modern foreign literary criticism: Encyclopedic Dictionary. pp. 98-99. “ P. - fr. personnage, English character, German person, figur - according to ideas narratology, a complex, multi-component phenomenon located at the intersection of various aspects of the communicative whole that is the artist. work. As a rule, P. has two functions: action and storytelling. Thus, it fulfills either the role actor, or the narrator- narrator”. Character and type (“content” of the character) 1) Sierotwiński S. Słownik terminów literackich. Wroclaw, 1966. “ Character. 1. Literary character, highly individualized, as opposed to type<...>”(S. 51). “ Type. A literary character presented in a significant generalization, in his most outstanding features” (S. 290). 2) Wilpert G. von. Sachwörterbuch der Literatur. “ Character(Greek - imprint), in literary criticism in general, every character , performing in drama. or a narrative work that copies reality or is fictional, but stands out due to its individual characteristics with its personal identity against the backdrop of a bare, vaguely outlined type”(S. 143). 3) Dictionary of World Literary Terms / By J. Shipley. “ Type. A person (in a novel or drama) who is not a complete single character, but exhibits the characteristic features of a certain class of people” (p. 346). 4) The Longman Dictionary of Poetic Terms / By J. Myers, M. Simms. “ Character(from the Greek “to make excellent”) is a person in a literary work whose distinguishing characteristics are easily recognizable (though sometimes quite complex) moral, intellectual and ethical qualities” (p. 44). 5) Blagoy D. Type // Dictionary of literary terms: B 2 vol. T. 2. Column. 951-958. “...in the broad sense of the word, all images and faces of any work of art inevitably have a typical character, are literary types.” “...not all characters in poetic works fit the concept of a literary type in its proper meaning, but only images of heroes and persons with realized artistry, that is, those who have enormous generalizing power...” “...in addition to typical images, we find in literary works there are images-symbols and images-portraits.” “While portrait images carry an excess of individual traits to the detriment of their typical meaning, in symbolic images the breadth of this latter completely dissolves their individual forms.” 6) Dictionary of literary terms. A) Abramovich G. Literary type. pp. 413-414. "T. l.(from the Greek typos - image, imprint, sample) - an artistic image of a certain individual, which embodies the features characteristic of a particular group, class, people, humanity. Both sides that make up the organic unity - the living individuality and the universal significance of literary T. - are equally important...” b) Vladimirova N. The character is literary. pp. 443-444. "X. l.(from the Greek charakter - trait, feature) - the image of a person in verbal art, which determines the originality of the content and form of a work of art.” “A special type of Ch. l. represents narrator's image(cm.)". 7) KLE. A) Baryshnikov E.P. Type // T. 7. Stlb. 507-508. “ T. (from the Greek tupoV - sample, imprint) - an image of human individuality, the most possible, typical for a particular society.” “The category of T. took shape in the Roman “epic of private life” precisely as a response to the need of the artist. knowledge and classification of the varieties of the common man and his relations to life.” “...class, professional, local circumstances seemed to “complete” the personality of the lit. character<...>and with this “completeness” they questioned its vitality, that is, its ability for unlimited growth and improvement.” b) Tyupa V.I. Literary character // T. 8. Stlb. 215-219. “ X. l. - an image of a person, outlined with a certain completeness and individual certainty, through which they are revealed as conditioned by a given socio-historical. situation type of behavior (actions, thoughts, experiences, speech activity), and the moral and aesthetic nature inherent in the author. human concept. existence. Lit. H. is an artist. integrity, organic unity general, repetitive and individual, unique; objective(nek - paradisesocially - psychological . realityhuman . life , which served as a prototype for lit. X.) and subjective(comprehension and evaluation of the prototype by the author). As a result, lit. X. appears as a “new reality”, artistically “created” by a person, representing a real person. type, clarifies it ideologically.” 8) [ B.a.]. Type // Les. P. 440: “ T. <...>in literature and art - a generalized image of human individuality, the most possible, characteristic of a certain society. environment."

II. Textbooks, teaching aids

1) Farino J. Introduction to literary criticism. Part 1. (4. Literary characters. 4.0. General characteristics). “...by the concept of “character” we will mean any person (including anthropomorphic creatures) who receives in a work the status of an object of description (in a literary text), image (in painting), demonstration (in a drama, performance, film)” . “Not all anthropomorphic creatures or persons found in the text of a work are present in the same way. Some of them have the status of objects of the world of this work. These are, so to speak, “characters-objects”. Others are given only as images, but the works themselves do not appear in the world. These are “image characters”. And others are just mentioned, but are not displayed in the text either as present objects or even as images. These are the "missing characters". They should be distinguished from references to persons who, according to the convention of a given world, cannot appear in it at all. The “absent” ones are not excluded by the convention, but, on the contrary, are allowed. Therefore, their absence is noticeable and thus - significant” (p. 103).

III. Special studies

Character and type 1) Hegel G.W.F. Aesthetics: In 4 volumes. T. I. “We proceeded from universal substantial forces of action. For their active implementation they need human individuality, in which they act as the driving force pathos. The general content of these forces must close in itself and appear in individual individuals as integrity And singularity. Such integrity is a person in his specific spirituality and subjectivity, an integral human individuality as character. The gods become human pathos, and pathos in concrete activity is human character” (p. 244). “Only such versatility gives the character a lively interest. At the same time, this completeness should appear merged into a single subject, and not be scattered, superficial and simply diverse excitability<...>Epic poetry is most suitable for depicting such an integral character, less dramatic and lyrical” (pp. 246-247). “Such versatility within the framework of a single dominant definiteness may seem inconsistent if you look at it with the eyes of reason<...>But for one who comprehends the rationality of a holistic and therefore living character within himself, this inconsistency precisely constitutes consistency and coherence. For man is distinguished by the fact that he not only bears within himself the contradiction of diversity, but also endures this contradiction and remains equal and true to himself in it” (pp. 248-249). “If a person does not have such single center, then the various aspects of its diverse inner life disintegrate and appear devoid of any meaning.<...>From this side, firmness and determination are an important aspect of the ideal portrayal of character” (p. 249). 2) Bakhtin M.M. Author and hero in aesthetic activity // Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of verbal creativity. “ Character we call this form of interaction between the hero and the author, which carries out the task of creating the whole of the hero as a specific personality<...>the hero is given as a whole from the very beginning<...>everything is perceived as a moment of characterization of the hero, has a characterological function, everything comes down to and serves as an answer to the question: who is he” (p. 151). “Character building can go in two main directions. We will call the first classic character building, the second romantic. For the first type of character building, the basis is artistic value fate...“ (p. 152). “Unlike the classical romantic character, he is self-initiated and value-intensive<...>The value of fate, which presupposes gender and tradition, is unsuitable for artistic completion here.<..>Here the hero’s individuality is revealed not as fate, but as an idea, or, more precisely, as the embodiment of an idea” (pp. 156-157). “If character is established in relation to the latest values ​​of the worldview<...>expresses the cognitive and ethical attitude of a person in the world<...>, then the type is far from the boundaries of the world and expresses a person’s attitude towards values ​​already specified and limited by the era and environment, to benefits, that is, to a meaning that has already become being (in the act of character, meaning for the first time becomes being). Character in the past, type in the present; the character's environment is somewhat symbolized, the objective world around the type is inventory. Type - passive position of the collective personality” (p. 159). “The type is not only sharply intertwined with the world around it (objective environment), but is depicted as conditioned by it in all its moments, the type is a necessary moment of some environment (not a whole, but only a part of the whole).<...>The type presupposes the superiority of the author over the hero and his complete non-involvement in the world of the hero; hence the author is completely critical. The hero’s independence in the type is significantly reduced...” (p. 160). 3) Mikhailov A.V. From the history of character // Man and culture: Individuality in the history of culture. “...character gradually reveals its orientation “inward” and, as soon as this word comes into contact with the “inner” person, it builds this inner from the outside - from the external and superficial. On the contrary, the new European character is built from the inside out: “character” refers to the basis or basis laid down in human nature, the core, as if the generative scheme of all human manifestations, and the differences can only concern whether “character” is the deepest in a person, or in its interior has an even deeper beginning” (p. 54). Hero and aesthetic appreciation 1) Fry N. Anatomy of criticism. Essay first / Trans. A.S. Kozlov and V.T. Oleynik // Foreign aesthetics and theory of literature of the 19th-20th centuries: Treatises, articles, essays / Comp., total. ed. G.K. Kosikova. “The plot of a literary work is always a story about how someone does something. The “someone,” if it is a person, is the hero, and the “something” he succeeds or fails to accomplish is determined by what he can or might do, depending on the author’s intention and the consequent expectations of the audience.<...>1. If the hero is superior to people and their environment in quality, then he is a deity and the story about him is myth in the usual sense of the word, i.e. a story about God<...>2. If the hero is superior to people and his environment in terms of degrees, then this is a typical hero of a legend. His actions are wonderful, but he himself is portrayed as a man. The hero of these tales is transported to a world where the normal laws of nature are partially suspended<...>Here we move away from myth in the proper sense of the word and enter the realm of legend, fairy tale, Märchen and their literary derivatives. 3. If a hero is superior to other people in degree, but is dependent on the conditions of earthly existence, then this is a leader. He is endowed with power, passion and power of expression, but his actions are still subject to the criticism of society and are subject to the laws of nature. This is a hero high mimetic mode, first of all, a hero of epic and tragedy<...>4. If the hero is not superior to either other people or his own environment, then he is one of us: we treat him as an ordinary person, and demand that the poet observe those laws of verisimilitude that correspond to our own experience. And this is the hero low mimetic mode, first of all - comedy and realistic literature.<...>At this level, it is often difficult for the author to preserve the concept of “hero,” which is used in the above modes in its strict meaning.<...>5. If the hero is below us in strength and intelligence, so that we have the feeling that we are looking down on the spectacle of his lack of freedom, defeats and the absurdity of existence, then the hero belongs ironic mode. This is also true in the case when the reader understands that he himself is or could be in the same position, which, however, he is able to judge from a more independent point of view” (pp. 232-233). 2) Tyupa V.I. Modes of artistry (lecture series outline) // Discourse. Novosibirsk 1998. No. 5/6. pp. 163-173. “The method of such development (artistic integrity. - N.T.) - for example, glorification, satirization, dramatization - and acts as a mode of artistry, an aesthetic analogue of the existential mode of personal existence (the way the “I” is present in the world)” (p. 163). “Heroic<...>represents a certain aesthetic principle of meaning generation, consisting in combining the internal givenness of being (“I”) and its external givenness ( role-playing border that connects and demarcates the personality with the world order). Basically, the heroic character “is not separated from his fate, they are united, fate expresses the extra-personal side of the individual, and his actions only reveal the content of fate” (A.Ya. Gurevich)” (p. 164). “ Satire is the aesthetic mastery of the incompleteness of the personal presence of the “I” in the world order, that is, such a discrepancy between the personality and its role in which the internal reality of individual life turns out to be narrower than the external given and is unable to fill one or another role boundary” (p. 165). “ Tragedy- a transformation of heroic artistry diametrically opposed to satire<...>A tragic situation is a situation of excessive “freedom of the “I” within oneself” (Hegel’s definition of personality) regarding one’s role in the world order (fate): an excessively “broad man”<...>The tragic guilt, contrasting with the satirical guilt of imposture, consists not in the act itself, which is subjectively justified, but in its personality, in the unquenchable thirst to remain oneself” (p. 167). “The considered modes of artistry<...>united in their pathetic attitude towards the world order. Fundamentally different aesthetic nature, unpathetic comic, whose penetration into high literature (from the era of sentimentalism) brought “a new mode of relationships between man and man” (Bakhtin), formed on the basis of carnival laughter.” “The laughter attitude brings a person subjective freedom from the bonds of objectivity<...>and, taking living individuality beyond the limits of the world order, establishes “free familiar contact between all people” (Bakhtin)<...>" “The comic gap between the inner and outer sides of the self-in-the-world, between the face and the mask<...>can lead to the discovery of true individuality<...>In such cases we usually talk about humor, making eccentricity (personal uniqueness of self-manifestations) a meaning-generating model of the presence of “I” in the world.<...>However, comic effects can also be revealed by the absence of a face under the mask, where there may be an “organ”, “stuffed brains”<...>This kind of comedy can appropriately be called sarcasm <...>Here the masquerade of life turns out to be a lie not of an imaginary role in the world order, but of an imaginary personality” (pp. 168-169). Hero and text 1) Ginzburg L. About a literary hero. (Chapter three. The structure of a literary hero). “A literary character is, in essence, a series of successive appearances of one person within a given text. Throughout one text, the hero can appear in a variety of forms.<...>The mechanism of gradual increase in these manifestations is especially obvious in large novels with a large number of characters. A character disappears, gives way to others, only to reappear a few pages later and add another link to the growing unity. Repeating, more or less stable features form the properties of a character. It appears as one-quality or multi-quality, with qualities unidirectional or multidirectional” (p. 89). “The hero’s behavior and his characterological characteristics are interconnected. Behavior is a reversal of its inherent properties, and properties are stereotypes of behavioral processes. Moreover, a character’s behavior is not only actions, but also any participation in the plot movement, involvement in ongoing events, and even any change in mental states. The properties of a character are reported by the author or narrator; they arise from his self-characterization or from the judgments of other characters. At the same time, the reader himself is left to determine these properties - an act similar to the everyday stereotyping of the behavior of our acquaintances, which we carry out every minute. An act that is similar and at the same time different, because a literary hero is given to us by someone else’s creative will - as a task with a predicted solution” (pp. 89-90). “The unity of a literary hero is not a sum, but a system, with its dominants organizing it.<...>It is impossible, for example, to understand and perceive in its structural unity the behavior of Zola’s heroes without the mechanism of biological continuity or Dostoevsky’s heroes without the prerequisite of the need for a personal solution to the moral and philosophical question of life” (p. 90). 2) Bart R. S/Z / Per. G.K. Kosikov and V.P. Murat. “At the moment when identical semes, having permeated the proper name several times in a row, are finally assigned to it, - at that moment a character is born. The character, then, is nothing more than a product of combinatorics; Moreover, the resulting combination is distinguished by both relative stability (for it is formed by repeating semes) and relative complexity (for these semes are partly consistent and partly contradict each other). This complexity precisely leads to the emergence of a character’s “personality,” which has the same combinatorial nature as the taste of a dish or a bouquet of wine. A proper name is a kind of field in which magnetization occurs; virtually such a name is correlated with a specific body, thereby involving this configuration of semes in the evolutionary (biographical) movement of time” (p. 82). “If we start from a realistic view of character, believing that Sarrazin (the hero of Balzac's novella. - N.T.) lives outside of a piece of paper, then we should start looking for the motives for this suspension (the hero’s inspiration, unconscious rejection of the truth, etc.). If we proceed from a realistic view of discourse, considering the plot as a mechanism whose spring must completely unfold, then we should recognize that the iron law of the narrative, which presupposes its non-stop unfolding, requires that the word “castrato” not be uttered. Although both of these views are based on different and in principle independent (even opposite) laws of likelihood, they still reinforce each other; as a result, a general phrase arises in which fragments of two different languages ​​are unexpectedly combined: Sarrazine is intoxicated, because the movement of the discourse should not be interrupted, and the discourse, in turn, gets the opportunity to develop further because the intoxicated Sarrazine does not hear anything, but only speaks himself . Two chains of patterns turn out to be “unsolvable”. Good narrative writing represents precisely this kind of embodied undecidability” (pp. 198-199).

QUESTIONS

1. Consider and compare various definitions of the concepts “character” and “hero” in reference and educational literature. What criteria are usually used to distinguish a hero from other characters in a work? Why are “character” and “type” usually opposed to each other? 2. Compare the definitions of the concept of “character” in reference literature and in Hegel’s “Lectures on Aesthetics”. Point out the similarities and differences. 3. How does Bakhtin’s interpretation of character differ from Hegel’s? Which of them is closer to the definition of the concept given by A.V. Mikhailov? 4. How does Bakhtin’s interpretation of type differ from the one we find in reference literature? 5. Compare the solutions to the problem of classifying the aesthetic “modes” of the hero in N. Frei and V.I. Tyups. 6. Compare the judgments about the nature of a literary character expressed by L.Ya. Ginzburg and Roland Barthes. Point out the similarities and differences.

Literature is an amoebic concept (just like types of literature): throughout the centuries-long development of human civilization, it inevitably changed both in form and content. You can confidently talk about the evolution of this type of art on a global scale or be strictly limited to certain periods of time or a specific region (ancient literature, the Middle Ages, Russian literature of the 19th century and others), nevertheless, you need to perceive it as a true art of words and an integral part of the global cultural process.

The art of words

Traditionally, when an individual talks about literature, he means fiction. This concept (the synonym “the art of words” is often used) arose on the fertile soil of oral folk art. However, unlike it, literature at this time exists not in oral, but in written form (from Latin lit(t)eratura - literally “written”, from lit(t)era - literally “letter”). Fiction uses words and structures of written (natural human) language as unit material. Literature and other forms of art are similar to each other. But its specificity is determined in comparison with types of art that use other material instead of linguistic-verbal (fine art, music) or together with it (songs, theater, cinema), on the other hand - with other types of verbal text: scientific, philosophical, journalistic, etc. In addition, fiction unites any author's (including anonymous) works, in contrast to works of folklore that clearly do not have a specific author.

Three main genera

Types and kinds of literature are significant associations according to the category of the relationship of the “speaker” (speaker) to the artistic whole. Officially, there are three main genera:

Types and genres of literature

In the most common classification, all types of fiction are distributed within the framework They can be epic, which includes story, novel and short story; lyrical poems include; ballads and poems are lyroepic; dramaturgical ones can be divided into drama, tragedy and comedy. Literary types can be distinguished from each other by the number of characters and plot lines, volume, functions and content. In different periods of literary history, one type can be represented in different genres. For example: philosophical and psychological novels, detective novels, social and picaresque. Aristotle began to theoretically divide works into types of literature in his treatise called “Poetics”. His work was continued in modern times by the French poet-critic Boileau and Lessing.

Typification of literature

Editorial and publishing preparation, i.e., the selection of written works for subsequent publications, is usually carried out by the publishing editor. But it is quite difficult for an ordinary user to accurately navigate the vast sea. It is more advisable to use a systematic approach, namely, you need to clearly distinguish between the types of literature and their purpose.

• A novel is an impressive form of work, having a huge number of heroes with a fairly developed and closely connected system of relationships between them. A novel can be historical, family, philosophical, adventure and social.
• An epic is a series of works, less often a single one, invariably covering a significant historical era or a significant large-scale event.

• A short story is the primary genre of narrative prose, much shorter than a novel or story. The set of stories is usually called a short story, and the writer is called a short story writer.

Not the least significant

• Comedy is a creation that makes fun of individual or social shortcomings, focusing on particularly awkward and ridiculous situations.

• Song is the oldest type of poetry, without which the category “types of fiction” would not be complete. The work is in poetic form with many verses and choruses. There are: folk, lyrical, heroic and historical.

• A fable is a prosaic, but more often poetic, work of a moralistic, moralizing and satirical nature.

• A story is a literary work of a certain, often small, size, which tells about a separate event in the life of a character.

• Myth - narration is also included in the section “types of literature” and brings to future generations the idea of ​​ancestors about the universe, heroes and gods.

• A lyric poem is an expression of the author’s emotional experiences in a poetic form that is convenient for him.

• An essay is a narrative, a subtype of epic, which reliably tells about real events and facts.

• A story is a work similar in structure to a short story, but differs in volume. A story can tell about several events in the life of the main characters at once.

• Melodrama - deservedly continues the list of the category “types of literature”; it is a narrative dramatic work, distinguished by a categorical division of heroes into positive and negative.

Literature and modernity

Every day life itself more and more persistently convinces one and all that the level of consistency and unity of book publications, newspaper and magazine materials is one of the main criteria for the effectiveness of society's education. Naturally, the initial stage of acquaintance with literature (not counting children's literature) starts at school. Therefore, any literature literature for teachers contains a variety of literature that helps convey the necessary knowledge in a form that is understandable to the child.

Individual choice

It is difficult to overestimate the role of literature in the life of a modern person, because books have educated more than one generation. It was they who helped people understand both the world around them and themselves, encouraged the desire for truth, moral principles and knowledge, and taught them to respect the past. Unfortunately, literature and other forms of art are often undervalued in modern society. There is a certain category of individuals who declare that literature has already outlived its usefulness, it has been completely replaced by television and cinema. But whether to take advantage of the opportunity that books provide or not is an individual choice for everyone.

2. The hero’s place in the system of images and his role in revealing the author’s intention.

3. Typical character of a literary hero; presence or absence of prototypes.

4. Characteristics of a literary hero.

5. Means of creating a literary character

1. determining the scope of the topic (what exactly needs to be remembered; you cannot write about everything, even if you know the text of the work perfectly well).

2. Learn to ask questions (to yourself in order to pose a problem): why did the author compare certain events and characters? What artistic means does the author use to depict events and characters? What role do these events or characters play in the context of the work?

3. Accuracy, focus of evidence (if you can clearly and concisely answer your own questions, then you know what to prove in your own work).

4. Selection of arguments, planning specific paragraphs of the essay.

5. Mastery in writing an introduction (for the examiner: the author of the essay is completely fluent in the material and chooses the best way to present the topic).

6. Not “for peace”, but “for health” (conclusion): these are not just conclusions, this is a way out of your topic into the wide world of Russian literature - a conclusion of everything stated above.

7. Check: at least twice! the first time - checking the general ode of evidence, logic, compliance with the norms of literary language. The second time is a literacy test only. In this case, you should read the text from the end to the beginning (you abstract from the content and check only literacy).

8. And a few more tips:

never write about what you don’t know or know poorly;

Do not use words whose spelling you are not sure of; try to replace them with synonyms;

don’t be clever, don’t complicate your phrases, in this case it’s easy to get confused;

write simply, rely on the text of the work of art, a good knowledge of the text always makes a favorable impression.

Subject		Work
		"19 Oct 1825" In Mikhailovsky, in " in the darkness of imprisonment", the poet is lonely, but his imagination " calling his comrades", and the thought of them warms the time of separation. P. calls Kuchelbecker " my brother by muse, by fate» "Pushchina"« My first friend, my priceless friend! / And I blessed fate, / When my secluded yard, / Covered with sad snow, / Your bell rang out» Nanny P. calls “ friend of my harsh days", and beloved " lovely friend»
	B. Okudzhava	"Let's join hands, friends"« Let's hold hands, friends, / So as not to perish alone»
	V.Vysotsky	« Song about a friend"(If a friend suddenly turns up)" Let him be in a relationship with you - / Then you will understand who he is” “So, like yourself / Rely on him»
		Ode " Liberty» « I want to sing freedom to the world,/I want to defeat vice on the thrones!» « To Chaadaev"Freedom is the opportunity to realize" souls of beautiful impulses» « Prisoner» « We are free birds, / it’s time, brother, it’s time»
	M. Lermontov	"Prisoner"« Open the prison for me/Give me the radiance of the day» « Sail"(eternal spiritual restlessness, eternal search and anxiety give rise to the desire for freedom)
		« I loved you», « On the hills of Georgia», « I remember a wonderful moment»( TO***). All ages are submissive to love: “It doesn’t suit me and is beyond my years... It's time, it's time for me to be smarter! But I recognize it by all the signs The disease of love in my soul" "Confession"
		Love is the maximum closeness of people, “the union of the soul with the dear soul"and an unequal struggle; “union”, “merger”, “combination” and – “fatal duel”(« Predestination»)
		Poems about love are impressionistic, the focus is on the lyrical hero himself. " Whisper, timid breathing"- 12 lines paint a picture of a passionate love date from the first seconds late in the evening to parting at dawn.
	V. Mayakovsky	« Lilichka!" - an excited lyrical monologue, which expresses the reckless love feeling of the hero of Art. The love theme continues to develop in Art. " Letter to Comrade Kostrov from Paris about the essence of love». « Letter to Tatyana Yakovleva“- the intimate love experience is translated into a socio-political plane. In love lyrics, the evolution of Mayakovsky from a lyric poet to a poet-tribune, a citizen is obvious.
	A. Akhmatova	As a rule, A. records the nuances of thoughts and feelings of a rejected woman, who understands that together with her lover, life itself is leaving her. “I ran away without touching the railing, I ran after him to the gate, Gasping for breath, I shouted: "It's a joke, that's all If you leave, I’ll die!” He smiled, calmly and creepily, And he told me: "Don't stand in the wind" « Clasped her hands under a dark veil"A.'s love turns into a duel of strong personalities (art. " He loved», « And I thought I was like that too», “Are you submissive? Are you crazy?") In the collection " Beads“poems appear that tell about overcoming love’s melancholy, about the understanding that life is beautiful, endless, incomprehensible, that nature and God can heal the never-healing wounds of love: “I learned to live simply, wisely, Look at the sky and pray to God. And wander for a long time before evening, To tire out unnecessary anxiety. When the burdocks rustle in the ravine And the bunch of yellow-red rowan will fade, I write funny poems About life that is perishable, perishable and beautiful.” “I learned to live simply and wisely”
	M. Lermontov	« Prayer“- the lyrical hero prays not for himself (“I pray not for my deserted soul”) but for his beloved. " Beggar"- love brings not joy, but pain and suffering: "So I prayed to your love, With bitter tears, with longing, Yes, my best feelings Deceived by you forever!
		“Caucasus”, “Winter Morning”, “Autumn”, “Demons”, “Winter Road”, “Winter Evening”- the landscape serves as a means of revealing the poet’s state of mind.
	F. Tyutchev	Nature means " world, universe"(whole image) « And the noise of the forest, and the noise of the mountains - Everything cheerfully echoes the thunder!» « Spring thunderstorm» T.’s nature is spiritualized, endowed with soul and consciousness. About an autumn evening: “That gentle smile of fading, What in a rational being we call Divine modesty of suffering." Nature and man are interconnected (“ How the ocean envelops the globe”, “Silentium!»)
		Fet glorifies the beauty and uniqueness of every moment of human life, the unity of nature and man, personality and the universe. “And like in a barely noticeable drop of dew You will recognize the whole face of the sun, So united in the depths of the cherished You will find the entire universe." "Good and Evil" “Tell me that the sun has risen, What is it with hot light The sheets began to tremble. Tell them that the forest will wake up. All woke up, every branch. Every bird was startled And full of spring thirst" « I came to you with greetings»
	B. Pasternak	Nature, eternity is the reference, the criterion of all actions and feelings. The poet bows to the mysterious charm of winter: « And the white, dead kingdom, Throwing a mental shiver. I quietly whisper: “Thank you! You give more than they ask.". « Zazimki»
	M. Lermontov	« When the yellowing field is agitated"- the unity of man and nature
Loneliness	M. Lermontov	« Both boring and sad"The poet is alone among people - " and no one to give a hand", there is no place for him among the crowd and light - " how often surrounded by a motley crowd». “I go out alone on the road” “Sail”
	V. Mayakovsky	Art. " Violin and a little nervous"continues the theme of loneliness, indifference to each other and the disunity of people, the theme of the poet and his mission, the relationship between the poet and the crowd, raised in " Listen!». « Good attitude towards horses“- the topic of loneliness and man’s misunderstanding of man is raised. A touching story about a fallen horse is just an excuse to tell the reader about himself, about his “ animal melancholy" The crying horse is a kind of double of the author: "Baby We are all a little horse, Each of us is a horse in our own way.” The theme of the poet and the crowd is also raised: “Kuznetsky laughed,
	M. Tsvetaeva	“Homesickness! For a long time…"
Exile	M. Lermontov	"Clouds" « eternal wanderers", "heavenly clouds" are likened to an exile, a lyrical hero.
		“Here I am wandering along the high road / In the quiet light of the fading day”
	N. Nekrasov	“Who lives well in Rus'”
Creation		Creativity is a subconscious process, it is the unconscious impulses of the soul « I don’t know what I will be Sing - but only the song is ripening» “I came to you with greetings”
	B. Pasternak	Creativity is a subconscious process. The universe enters into co-authorship with the poet (Art. “ Definition of poetry", "February. Get some ink and cry») The highest complexity of life is simplicity. Simplicity of poetic formulations with depth of meaning. This is declared by one of his most famous articles: « I want everything Get to the point: At work, looking for a way, In heartbreak. All the while grasping the thread Fates, events. Live, think, feel, love, Complete the opening.» The connection between the poet and time in Art. " Night»: « Don't sleep, don't sleep artist, Don't give in to sleep You are a hostage to eternity Trapped by time»
	M. Tsvetaeva	He feels involved in high poetry, turns to Derzhavin, Pushkin, Blok in his articles. not because he considers himself equal to them, but because he considers himself like-minded, serving the same great and sizzling art as they do: « I know: our gift is unequal, What do you need, young Derzhavin, My ill-mannered verse!» « Nobody took anything away»
Theme of the poet and poetry/ Purpose of the poet	M. Lermontov	« Death of a Poet", "Poet" - theme of the poet and the crowd « But your simple and useful language is boring to us We are amused by sparkles and deceptions»
		“I erected a monument to myself”, “Prophet”, “Poet”
	N. Nekrasov	Creates an image of his “ the unkind and unloved Muse, the sad companion of the sad poor». The poet does not separate himself from the crowd: « I am from your bones and flesh, Frenzied crowd» « Why are you tearing me apart?»
		True poetry is the ability to transform suffering into joy, to understand other people and share feelings with them, to see the beauty and infinity of the world: « Give life a breath Give sweetness to secret torments, Instantly feel someone else’s as your own, Whisper about what my tongue goes numb, Strengthen the fight of fearless hearts - This is what only a select few singers possess, This is both its sign and crown!» « Drive away a living boat with one push»
	V. Mayakovsky	In the poem " Cloud in my pants"M. proclaimed the prophetic mission of the artist - to see what no one sees (" where people's eyes end short"). In the country of the Soviets, poetry must join the ranks of the creators of a new reality: « Always shine! Shine everywhere! Until the last days until the end» « An incredible adventure...» The possibilities of art are limitless (" The poet's rhyme is a caress, a slogan, a bayonet, and a whip." - Art. " Conversation with the financial inspector about poetry») Poem " Out loud. First introduction to the poem“- participation in the construction of a new life is affirmed as the main advantage of poetry and the main criterion for assessing its level. Summing up his work, the poet addresses his descendants, looks into “ communist is far away»
	A. Tvardovsky	« The whole essence is in one - the only covenant» The central idea of ​​the article is the creator’s right to absolute freedom. « About what I know better than anyone in the world, I want to say. And the way I want y"
	M. Lermontov	« Motherland" Love " strange", inexplicable - “for what, I don’t know myself”
		In Art. " Autumn will“The poet speaks about the impossibility of life without Russia, feels a kinship with it: “ Shelter you in the vast shares”, “how to live and cry without you!" The open spaces of the Fatherland are dear to the block, the sad fate of the people - the tiller of the soil: “ I will cry over the sadness of your fields, / I will love your space forever» In Art. " Rus“The homeland appears as a fairy-tale enchanted kingdom. In Art. " Russia"The Motherland appears as " poor Russia", her " gray huts», « rutted ruts" The feeling of inseparability between the fate of the poet and the fate of the Motherland is expressed. Art. " On the railway». « On the Kulikovo field" - a cycle of articles in which the poet refers to history. In Art. " Sin shamelessly,soundly“The image of a terrible Russia appears. But this is the Motherland with which he feels an indissoluble connection: « And so, my Russia, You are dearer to me from all over the world» Art. " Kite»
		In Art. "Rus"almost intimately addresses his homeland, as if he were a loved one: " Oh, you, Rus', my meek homeland" In Lermontov's style, he calls his love for Russia inexplicable: « But I love you, gentle motherland, Why, I can’t figure out» The theme of the homeland in Art. is interpreted in a philosophical vein. “The feather grass is sleeping. Plain dear" « Give me in my beloved homeland, Loving everything, die in peace!» Art. " Goy, my dear Rus'»: “If the Holy Army shouts: “Throw away everything, live in paradise!” I will say: “There is no need for heaven, Give me my homeland!” Art. " Favorite land», « The hewn horns began to sing»
		“You can’t understand Russia with your mind”
Philosophical lyrics		Regrets the transience of life: « What is life and death? What a pity about that fire That shone over the whole universe, And he walks into the night and cries as he leaves...» « distant friend»
		Art is eternal. In Art. " The night was shining. The garden was full of moonlight“The singing of a woman gives rise to thoughts in the poet about eternity, about the great significance of art, capable of reconciling and uniting people with its incomprehensible beauty: « There is no end to life, and there is no other goal, As soon as you lie into the sobbing sounds, To love you, hug you and cry over you»
	M. Tsvetaeva	In Art. " Others with bright eyes and faces“She speaks about the meaning of her existence on earth: « Others wander with all their flesh, They swallow breath from parched lips... And I had my arms wide open! - I froze - tetanus! May the Russian draft blow my soul out!»
	M. Lermontov	« Sail"- the meaning of human life is in quest and struggle. " Three palm trees" - the problem of the meaning of life: palm trees do not want to live " no use».
	B. Pasternak	« It's snowing" - the transience of life
Civil lyrics	N. Nekrasov	The theme of civic service is to be " denouncer of the crowd, its passions and delusions»
	A. Akhmatova	In 1917, when many poets leave Russia, gripped by revolutionary madness, she refuses to do so, realizing the impossibility of living without that with which the soul has forever grown together. She does not consider it possible to respond to the offer to leave her homeland. She doesn’t even want to hear these words that are insulting to her dignity: « But indifferent and calm I covered my ears with my hands, So that with this unworthy speech, The mournful spirit has not been defiled» The voluntary exile is truly pathetic, since his life is meaningless. In years of severe trials, it is not oneself who needs to be saved: « And here, in the depths of the fire, Losing the rest of my youth, We don't hit a single beat Didn't turn away from you» “I am not with those who abandoned the earth» During the Second World War, A. writes Art. " Oath", "Courage", which expresses a feeling common to the entire people: « We swear to the children, we swear to the graves, That no one will force us to submit!»
		“To Chaadaev”, “In the depths of Siberian ores»
	V. Mayakovsky	Satirical hymns - " Hymn to Lunch”, “Hymn to the Scientist”, “Hymn to the Critic”. The main object of satire is philistinism and bureaucracy. In Art. " Oh rubbish"M. stigmatizes the philistine way of life. Philistine consciousness, " Murlo tradesman" seemed to him an obstacle to the realization of that utopian ideal model of a new life that he dreamed of. In Art. " Those who sat down for a meeting“The picture of endless meetings of Soviet officials - bureaucrats is grotesquely recreated. Vulgarity, philistinism as an ideology that should have no place in the new reality are satirically ridiculed in the comedy " Bug».
	Morals of the nobles	Fonvizin " Minor» Gogol " Dead Souls» Saltykov-Shchedrin " The story of how one....» Nekrasov " Who can live well in Rus'?»
	Morals of officials	Gogol " Auditor» Mayakovsky " Those who sat down for a meeting» Bulgakov "The Master and Margarita" Pushkin " Captain's daughter»
	N. Nekrasov	« I dedicated the lyre to my people" - elegy « Troika“- the terrible fate of a Russian woman, defenseless against life. "Reflections at the Front Entrance"" - appeal to the people: « Where are the people? There's a groan there... Oh, heartfelt! What does your endless groan mean? Will you wake up full of strength...» Art. " Railway»