Lexicography (from Greek lexikos - related to the word and...graphy

branch of linguistics dealing with the practice and theory of compiling dictionaries (See Dictionary) . In the development of forms of practical language among different peoples, three similar periods are distinguished: 1) the pre-dictionary period. The main function is the explanation of obscure words: glosses (See Gloss) (in Sumer, 25th century BC, in China, 20th century BC, in Western Europe, 8th century AD, in Russia, 13th century), glossaries (collections of glosses for individual works or authors, for example, to the Vedas, 1st millennium BC, to Homer, from the 5th century BC), vocabulary (collections words for educational and other purposes, for example, trilingual Sumerian-Akkado-Hittite tablets, 14-13 centuries BC, lists of words by thematic groups in Egypt, 1750 BC, etc.). 2) Early vocabulary period. The main function is the study of a literary language, which in many nations differs from spoken language: for example, monolingual lexicons of Sanskrit, 6-8 centuries, ancient Greek, 10 centuries; later - translation dictionaries of the passive type, where the vocabulary of a foreign language is interpreted using words of the national language (Arabic-Persian, 11th century, Latin-English, 15th century, Church Slavic-Russian, 16th century, etc.), then active-type translation dictionaries, where the source language is the folk language (French-Latin, English-Latin, 16th century, Russian-Latin-Greek, 18th century), as well as bilingual dictionaries of living languages. The first dictionaries of the explanatory type were created in countries with hieroglyphic writing (China, 3rd century BC, Japan, 8th century). 3) The period of developed literature, associated with the development of national literary languages. The main function is the description and normalization of the vocabulary of the language, increasing the linguistic culture of society: explanatory dictionaries, many of which are compiled by state academic and philological societies (Italian dictionary of the Crusca Academy, 1612, dictionary of the Russian Academy, 1789-94, etc.), also appear synonymous, phraseological, dialectal, terminological, spelling, grammatical and other dictionaries. The development of literature was influenced by the philosophical concepts of the era. For example, academic dictionaries of the 17th-18th centuries. were created under the influence of the philosophy of science of Bacon and Descartes. Dictionary of the French language by Littre (1863-72) and other dictionaries of the 19th century. experienced the influence of positivism. Evolutionist theories of the 19th century. strengthened the historical aspect in explanatory dictionaries.

In the 18th-19th centuries. affirmed, and in the 20th century. The 4th function of linguistics is developing - the collection and processing of data for linguistic research in the field of lexicology, word formation, stylistics, and the history of languages ​​(dictionaries of etymology, history, frequency, reverse, related languages, languages ​​of writers, etc.). Modern literature is acquiring an industrial character (the creation of lexicographic centers and institutes, the mechanization of work since 1950, etc.).

Theoretical literature was formed in the second third of the 20th century. The first scientific typology of dictionaries was created by the Soviet scientist L. V. Shcherba (1940). It was further developed in the works of many Soviet and foreign linguists (Czechoslovakia, France, USA, etc.). Modern linguistic theory is characterized by: a) the idea of ​​vocabulary as a system, the desire to reflect in the structure of the dictionary the lexical-semantic structure of the language as a whole and the semantic structure of an individual word (identifying the meanings of words according to their connections with other words in the text and within semantic fields ); b) a dialectical view of the meaning of a word, taking into account the mobile nature of the connection between the signifier and the signified in a verbal sign (the desire to note shades and transitions in the meanings of words, their use in speech, various intermediate phenomena); c) recognition of the close connection of vocabulary with grammar and other aspects of the language.

L. is associated with all branches of linguistics, especially with lexicology (See Lexicology) , many problems of which receive specific refraction in L. Modern literature emphasizes the important social function of dictionaries, which record the body of knowledge of a society of a given era. L. develops a typology of dictionaries. There are monolingual literature (explanatory and other dictionaries) and bilingual literature (translation dictionaries); educational literature (dictionaries for language learning), scientific and technical literature (terminological dictionaries), etc.

Lit.: Shcherba L.V., Experience in the general theory of lexicography, “Izv. Academy of Sciences of the USSR, OLYA”, 1940, No. 3; Lexicographic collection, vol. 1-6, M., 1957-63; Kovtun L.S., Russian lexicography of the Middle Ages, M. - L., 1963; Casares H., Introduction to modern lexicography, trans. from Spanish, M., 1958; Problems in lexicography, ed. F. W. Householder and Sol Saporta, 2 ed., The Hague, 1967; Dubois J. et Cl., Introduction a la Lexicographic ie dictionnare, P., 1971; Rey-Debove J., Etude linguistique et sémiotique des dictionnaires français contemporains. La Haye - P., 1971; Zgusta L., Manual of lexicography, The Hague, 1971.

V. G. Gak.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .

Synonyms:

See what “Lexicography” is in other dictionaries:

Lexicography… Spelling dictionary-reference book

- (Greek). 1) the study of compiling dictionaries. 2) part of the grammar that deals with word production and word change. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. LEXICOGRAPHY 1) compilation of a dictionary, 2) industry... ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

lexicography- and, zh.lexicographie f., German. Lexicographie. Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. BAS 1. Lexicography, the science of composing dictionaries. Corypheus 1802 1 210. The concept of lexicographic type is only one of the essential pillars of systemic lexicography. Another… … Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

LEXICOGRAPHY, lexicography, many. no, female (from the Greek lexikos dictionary and grapho I write) (philol.). Collecting words of a language, bringing them into a system and publishing them in the form of a lexicon or dictionary. Works on lexicography. || A set of printed... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and ... graphy), a section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries ... Modern encyclopedia

- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and ... graphy) a section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

LEXICOGRAPHY, and, female. Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. | adj. lexicographical, oh, oh. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov, N.Yu. Shvedova. 1949 1992 … Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Noun, number of synonyms: 5 lexicology (8) dictionary literature (1) ... Dictionary of synonyms

LEXICOGRAPHY- (from Greek lexicon - dictionary + graphō - I write). A branch of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Practical language learning (vocabulary) ensures the fulfillment of the following socially important functions: a) language teaching; b) description... New dictionary of methodological terms and concepts (theory and practice of language teaching)

Lexicography- (from the Greek lexikos relating to the word and ... graphy), a section of linguistics dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Not to be confused with lexicographical order. Lexicography (ancient Greek λεξικόν, lexikon “dictionary” and γράφω, grapho “I write”) is a branch of linguistics dealing with the issues of compiling dictionaries and their study; the science that studies semantic structure... ... Wikipedia

Books

• Lexicography of the modern Russian language Workshop, Ledeneva E.. The didactic tools of the manual are presented with materials from encyclopedic, explanatory, aspect and bilingual lexicographic publications of the last two centuries. Practical tasks...

Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of words, the characteristics of words, and their interpretation.

Lexicography(from the Greek lexikon - dictionary, grapho - write) studies the theory and practice of compiling various language dictionaries.

The very first dictionaries were made even before knowledge about language acquired a systematic character and turned into a science about language. Thus, the first lexicographers were not so much scientists as practitioners of a kind of art or craft based on scanty material, on guesses and intuition in formulating definitions and in putting forward etymologies. Their setting was legislative; with respect to each fact of use, a verdict had to be made once and for all: whether such use was correct or incorrect.[LEXICOGRAPHY]

Dictionaries

Definitions

1. dictionary - a collection of words, sayings of any language, with interpretation or translation; [Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language]

2. dictionary - a collection of words (usually in alphabetical order), set expressions with explanations, interpretations or translation into another language; [Ozhegov’s Dictionary]

3. dictionary - a book containing a list of words, usually with explanations, interpretations or translations into another language; [Dictionary of the modern Russian literary language]

4. dictionary - a book containing a list of words arranged according to one principle or another (for example, alphabetically), with one or another explanation. [Ushakov’s Dictionary]

Typology

Dictionaries are usually divided into two main types: encyclopedic and linguistic.

The object of description of linguistic (language) dictionaries is linguistic units (words, word forms, morphemes). In such a dictionary, a word (word form, morpheme) can be characterized from different sides, depending on the goals, volume and tasks of the dictionary: from the side of semantic content, word formation, spelling, spelling, correct use. Depending on how many features of a word are described in the dictionary, dictionaries are distinguished between single-aspect and multi-aspect. Synchronic linguistic dictionaries reflect a cross-section of the language of a certain time (for example, the language of the 18th century, modern language). Diachronic (for example, etymological) - reflect the development of language over time.

Encyclopedic (ancient Greek ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία - “full circle learning”) dictionaries contain extralinguistic information about the language units being described; these dictionaries contain information about scientific concepts, terms, historical events, personalities, geography, etc. The encyclopedic dictionary does not contain grammatical information about the word, but provides information about the subject denoted by the word.[Dictionary]

Main functions:

Educational;

Systematizing;

Information;

Development stages:

1.Development of a system of requirements regarding the purpose and range of users.

2.Development of a system of requirements relating to such dictionary parameters as units of description, volume, structure, type of dictionary information.

3. Selection of texts, description of contexts, characterization of grammatical forms, compilation of preliminary dictionaries.

4. Distributive analysis of texts, tests with native speakers.

5. Generalization of experimental data.

6.Construction of definitions in the appropriate metalanguage and their verification in the course of new experiments.

7.Collection and systematization of additional information about each language unit.

8.Formation of dictionary entries.

9.System analysis and ordering of dictionary entries.

10.Formation of the dictionary.

Historical lexicography

1. Pre-word period(in Sumer, 25th century BC, in China, 20th century BC, in Western Europe, 8th century AD, in Russia, 13th century)

The main function is to explain obscure words. [Lexicography]

Forces that led to the creation of monolingual dictionaries:

• religion (missionaries)

• cleansing from foreign influence

• language standardization

• copying

• patriotism and national pride

• education and mass communications

2. Early vocabulary period

The main function is the study of a literary language, which in many nations differs from spoken language: for example, monolingual lexicons of Sanskrit, 6-8 centuries, ancient Greek, 10 centuries; later - translation dictionaries of the passive type, where the vocabulary of a foreign language is interpreted using words of the national language (Arabic-Persian, 11th century, Latin-English, 15th century, Church Slavic-Russian, 16th century, etc.), then active-type translation dictionaries, where the source language is the folk language (French-Latin, English-Latin, 16th century, Russian-Latin-Greek, 18th century), as well as bilingual dictionaries of living languages.

3. Late vocabulary period (now)

The main function is to describe and normalize the vocabulary of the language, increasing the linguistic culture of society.

Traits (what influenced the development of dictionaries):

• creation of a metalanguage

• creation of theories and models of language

• the emergence of computing technology

• awareness and expansion of the scope of dictionaries

• vocabulary specialization

• distinguishing between the center and periphery of language [Lexicography (course)]

Theoretical and practical lexicography

Practical lexicography is the oldest of human activities. If we turn to the Sumerian culture (and this is the 25th century BC), we will see that already at that time people tried to explain obscure words and compiled dictionaries, which were called glossaries or vocabularies. The appearance of dictionaries in the form in which we are accustomed to seeing them, that is, the so-called “early dictionary period,” dates back to the 16th century. Since then, a huge number of different dictionaries have been compiled.

By the 20th century, practical lexicography had accumulated a wealth of experience in the lexicographic description of language. Since the middle of our century, this experience began to be described and generalized, and these generalizations led to the emergence of the theory of lexicography, which is defined today as “expediently organized knowledge that gives a holistic view of the entire series of issues related to the creation of dictionaries and other works of the dictionary type.” The theory of lexicography includes:

• consideration of the scope, content and structure of the concept of lexicography;

• the doctrine of genres and types of dictionaries;

• the doctrine of elements and parameters;

• the doctrine of the basics of lexicographic construction and the possibility of computerization;

• teaching about familiar vocabulary materials;

• the doctrine of planning and organizing vocabulary work;

• development and formation of lexicography rules. [Theoretical lexicography]

Modern lexicography

A modern lexicographer sees his task in describing vocabulary and its use. The lexicographer knows that his duty is to record in writing the language he observes, that continuous change is a property of every living organism, and that living language includes, in particular, forms resulting from erroneous assumptions and associations . English the word thumb is written with a "b" due to a false analogy with words like dumb "mute, wordless, silent, silent" made by some 16th century scribes. In the 20th century the phrase chaise longue "chaise longue", borrowed from French, where it meant "a long armchair, a long chair", turns into chaise lounge due to the external confusion of unrelated words (lounge in English means "to sit lounging or waddle; idleness, lazy gait"). The lexicographer should write down the word thumb because that is the accepted spelling, despite its illegal origins. Likewise, chaise lounge is now widespread and should therefore be included in the dictionary. In living usage it has not completely replaced chaise longue, but if this ever happens, the lexicographer will have to recognize this fact as well.

The debate between the so-called descriptive and prescriptive lexicography takes place mainly in the editorial offices of publishing houses and on the editorial pages of the popular press. Those discrepancies on this issue that actually exist between dictionaries occur mainly due to different understandings of what is included in the complete fixation of a given state of language. For example, some dictionaries assume that a record is incomplete if an objection to a particular usage (if such an objection is widespread) is not recorded, for example, the use of the word enormity instead of enormousness in the same meaning. The authors of other dictionaries are of the opinion that the predominance of a certain usage is in itself a sufficient reason for its inclusion in the dictionary and that no reference should be made to existing objections. Likewise, some lexicographers believe that the distinction between formal and informal language use (colloquial language, slang, etc.), which is largely subjective, should for the most part simply be ignored - while others assume that the qualified opinion of specialists , constituting the editorial board of the dictionary, forms part of the dictionary fixation of language, which should be communicated to readers of the dictionary to help them determine the degree of appropriateness of any expression in relation to a particular context. [Modern lexicography]

Modern lexicography emphasizes the important social function of dictionaries, which record the body of knowledge of a society of a given era. [Lexicography]

Unsolved problems of lexicography

The following dictionaries are missing:

• typical intonation contours of the Russian language
• morphological alternations
• semantic dictionary of complex words of the Russian language
• hyphenated spellings
• spelling dictionary of new words
• embodied/non-incarnate proper names
• syntactic dictionary of typical constructions
• metatext elements in the text
• noun compatibility
• subject names
• various writers
• works
• food code (what does bread mean?)
• signs
• typical comparisons
• dictionary of dictionaries [Lexicography (course)]

Famous lexicographers

Pollux

Julius Pollux (lat. Iulius Pollux; real name - Julius Polydeuces, ancient Greek Ιούλιος Πολυδεύκης) is a famous lexicographer, sophist and rhetorician of the second half of the 2nd century, writing in Greek.

Julius Pollux was from the Egyptian city of Naucratis and studied under the rhetorician Hadrian. He enjoyed the patronage of the Roman emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus.

Julius Pollux is the author of several works, of which only the Onomasticon has reached us, and not in the original version, but in a later transcription. [Pollux]

C. Ducange

Charles Ducange (French Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange; December 18, 1610, Amiens - October 23, 1688, Paris) - French medieval historian and philologist-encyclopedist. One of the founders of scientific Byzantine studies in Europe.

After receiving a law degree, he served as treasurer of the municipality in Amiens. Author of works on the history of Byzantium and France, publisher of historical handwritten documents, dictionaries of medieval Latin and Greek vocabulary.

Of Ducange’s heritage, his Latin dictionary “Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis”, covering the period of language development from approximately 500 to 1500, is of particular value. The dictionary was published in 3 volumes in 1678, expanded by the Benedictines in 1736 (10 volumes) and since then has been reprinted several times (the last edition, edited by L. Favre, was published in 1887) with additions and corrections made over the centuries by philologists and historians (including I.K. Adelung). Despite the fact that this dictionary is outdated in terms of fact, it is still used by medievalists and is considered the most complete and authoritative explanatory dictionary of the medieval Latin language. Volume 9 (latest edition) also contains a valuable dictionary of Old French. The tenth volume contains a powerful reference apparatus.[Ducange]

I. K. Adelung

Johann Christoph Adelung (German: Johann Christoph Adelung, 1732-1806) - German philologist, representative of the German Enlightenment, played a huge role in the normalization and unification of the German literary language; Adelung's works directly preceded the development of scientific linguistics in Germany.

Born on August 8, 1732 in the community of Spantek (near Anklam) in Pomerania in the family of a pastor. From 1752 to 1758 he studied evangelical theology at the Martin Luther University in Hall under the direction of Baumgarten.

In 1759 he was appointed teacher at the Evangelical Gymnasium in Erfurt. In 1765 he moved to Leipzig, collaborated with Leipzig newspapers and magazines, worked as an editor and proofreader, and was engaged in translations and independent historical and philological research.

In 1787, he received the position of chief librarian in the private library of the Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I, in Dresden, which he held until his death. Adelung died on September 10, 1806 in Dresden.

Nephew of I.K. Adelunga was a historian, archaeologist and bibliographer who settled in Russia, later corresponding member. Petersburg Academy of Sciences Friedrich (Fyodor Pavlovich) Adelung (1768-1843). [Adelung]

I. G. Walter

Johann Gottfried Walther (German: Johann Gottfried Walther; September 18, 1684, Erfurt - March 23, 1748, Weimar) - German lexicographer, music theorist, organist and composer.

He took music and organ lessons in Erfurt from Johann Bernhard Bach and Johann Andreas Kretschmar, as well as from other German musicians. In 1702, organist in the Erfurt Church of St. Thomas. At the same time, he began attending lectures on philosophy and law at the University of Erfurt, but left these studies, deciding to devote himself entirely to music. In 1703-1707 he traveled to various cities in Germany, met leading musicians, and took composition and organ lessons from them. In 1704, in Halberstadt, he met Andreas Werkmeister, who gave Walter a copy of Barifon’s “Pleiades”, and subsequently corresponded with the young musician, sending him new compositions (including D. Buxtehude). Werkmeister's treatises, as well as the philosophical works of Robert Fludd and Athanasius Kircher, had a significant influence on the formation of Walter's worldview. From 1707 until the end of his days, Walter served as organist of the Church of Peter and Paul in Weimar, where he met and became friends with J. S. Bach (in 1712 he was the godfather of Walter’s eldest son), his distant relative on his mother’s side. From the same year until 1715, he served as teacher of musical composition to the Crown Duke Johann Ernst (son of Duke Johann Ernst III of Saxe-Weimar). For unknown reasons, Walter was never able to take up the post of cantor in Weimar, despite repeated (including after Bach's departure from Weimar) petitions and died in poverty.[Walter]

V. I. Dal

Vladimir Ivanovich Dal (November 10, 1801 - September 22, 1872) - Russian scientist, writer and lexicographer, compiler of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”.

Corresponding member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences in the Department of Physics and Mathematics (elected on December 21, 1838 for natural scientific works), honorary member of the Academy in the Department of Natural Sciences (1863). When the St. Petersburg Academy merged with the Russian Academy, Vladimir Dahl was transferred to the Department of Russian Language and Literature. Vladimir Dal wrote to J. K. Grot

Member of the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (elected an honorary member in 1868). Member of the Society of Russian History and Antiquities.

One of the twelve founding members of the Russian Geographical Society, which awarded him the Constantine Medal for the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language.”

He knew at least 12 languages, understood Turkic languages, and is considered one of the first Turkologists.

Ethnographer, collector of folklore. He gave the collected songs to Kireevsky, fairy tales to Afanasyev. The rich, best collection of Dahl's popular prints at that time arrived at the Imp. publ. library and was subsequently included in Rovinsky’s publications.

Dahl died in Moscow on September 22, 1872. He was buried at the Vagankovskoye cemetery. [Dal]

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1. Concept and functions of lexicography

Lexicography is a branch of linguistics that deals with the compilation of dictionaries and their study; a science that studies the semantic structure of words, the characteristics of words, and their interpretation.

Lexicography is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. The very first dictionaries were made even before knowledge about language acquired a systematic character and turned into a science about language. Thus, the first lexicographers were not so much scientists as practitioners of a kind of art or craft based on scanty material, on guesses and intuition in formulating definitions and in putting forward etymologies. Their setting was legislative; with respect to each fact of use, a verdict had to be made once and for all: whether such use was correct or incorrect.

The role of the lexicographer was to record the language, assigning the "correct" meaning, spelling and stress to all words in common usage, and to accept those words into the dictionary, as anything useful should be accepted. Lexicography represents a word in the totality of all its properties, so a dictionary turns out to be not only a unique and indispensable language guide, but also an important tool for scientific research.

Lexicography functions:

1. Graphic recording of the vocabulary of the language

2. Description and normalization of the language

3. Interlingual communication

4. Scientific learning of vocabulary

2. Types of lexicography

Practical lexicography is the oldest of human activities. If we turn to the Sumerian culture (and this is the 25th century BC), we will see that already at that time people tried to explain obscure words and compiled dictionaries, which were called glossaries or vocabularies. The appearance of dictionaries in the form in which we are accustomed to seeing them, that is, the so-called “early dictionary period,” dates back to the 16th century. Since then, a huge number of different dictionaries have been compiled. Practical lexicography performs socially important functions, providing language teaching, description and normalization of language, interlingual communication, and scientific study of language. Lexicography strives to find the most optimal and perceptible ways of dictionary representation of the entire body of knowledge about a language.

By the 20th century, practical lexicography had accumulated a wealth of experience in the lexicographic description of language. Since the middle of our century, this experience began to be described and generalized, and these generalizations led to the emergence of the theory of lexicography, which is defined today as “expediently organized knowledge that gives a holistic view of the entire series of issues related to the creation of dictionaries and other dictionary-type works

Theoretical lexicography covers a complex of problems associated with the development of the macrostructure (selection of vocabulary, volume and nature of the dictionary, principles of arrangement of material) and microstructure of the dictionary (structure of a dictionary entry, types of dictionary definitions, the relationship between different types of information about a word, types of language illustrations, etc. ), the creation of a typology of dictionaries, with the history of lexicography.

The theory of lexicography includes:

1. consideration of the scope, content and structure of the concept of lexicography;

2. teaching about genres and types of dictionaries;

3. doctrine of elements and parameters; the doctrine of the basics of lexicographic construction and the possibility of computerization;

4. teaching about familiar vocabulary materials;

5. the doctrine of planning and organizing vocabulary work;

6. development and formation of lexicography rules

Today, universal principles and functions of dictionaries have been formulated.

The main functions of dictionaries are:

1. educational;

2. systematizing;

3. reference;

4. normative.

Principles of lexicographic description include:

1. principle of relativity and focus on the addressee

2. principle of standardization

3. principle of economy

4. principle of simplicity

5. principle of completeness

6. efficiency principle

7. principle of semantic gradation of description

The universal functions and principles of the macrostructure of the dictionary determine the following universal features of any dictionary entry:

1. Requirement for clear addressing (reference function);

2. Description of the combinability potentials of the word (principle of economy, completeness, efficiency);

3. Description of the semantic connections of a word in the lexical system of a language (systematizing function);

4. Availability of illustrative examples, speech contexts (the principle of completeness, efficiency, traditionality)

The modern theory of lexicography is characterized by:

1. The idea of ​​vocabulary as a system, the desire to reflect in the structure of the dictionary the lexical-semantic structure of the language as a whole and the semantic structure of an individual word

2. Didactic view of the meaning of a word, taking into account the mobile nature of the connection between the signifier and the signified in a verbal sign

3. Recognition of the close connection of vocabulary with grammar and other aspects of the language.

A dictionary is an information resource that plays a guiding and explanatory role in the work of a translator. This is a reference book that contains words (or morphemes, phrases, idioms, etc.) arranged in a certain order (different in different types of dictionaries), explains the meaning of the units described, gives various information about them or their translation into another language, or provides information about the objects they denote.

Dictionaries perform the following social functions:

1) informative (allows you to get acquainted with the accumulated knowledge in the shortest way - through notations);

2) communicative (promote interlingual communication, language learning, both native and non-native);

3) normative (fix the meanings and use of words, promoting the normalization and unification of language as a means of communication)

When compiling dictionaries, the following general principles should be taken into account:

1. stylistic unlimitedness is the belonging of a word to both written and spoken language and, in addition, the absence of any “territorial restrictions” in the use of the word;

2. semantic value is the inclusion mainly of those words that denote concepts and phenomena, mainly of a fictional and political-economic nature (general literary and socio-political vocabulary is best known to language learners; various associative connections are formed around it, a certain conceptual base is created) ;

3. polysemy (the dictionary should focus on knowledge of the “basic meanings of a word,” which helps expand both active and passive vocabulary when teaching translation);

4. frequency. The frequency criterion is a feature that regulates the selection of vocabulary for dictionaries.

3. Types of dictionaries

lexicography dictionary linguistics china

There are the following types of dictionaries, which differ from each other in a number of ways.

1. In terms of content - encyclopedic dictionaries that explain not words, but the objects and concepts themselves denoted by them. For professional translators, they are of particular importance, as they contain a multifaceted description of the vocabulary of the modern language. “An encyclopedic dictionary allows you to better see the situational, speech and historical background within which the word lives” [Krupnov 1987: 41]. A world-famous dictionary of this type is, for example, Webster's Dictionary. Currently, compilers of encyclopedic dictionaries are faced with the task of including in dictionary entries not only information about normative word usage, but also other issues that meet the needs of modern readers.

2. By selection of vocabulary - thesauri, covering the entire vocabulary of the language and private dictionaries, reflecting some of its thematic and stylistic layers (dictionaries of terminology, dialect, vernacular, argot, writers' language, etc.), or special varieties of words (dictionaries of neologisms, archaisms, rare words, abbreviations, foreign words, proper names).

According to the method of description, words are special, revealing individual aspects of words and the relationships between them. These include:

1. etymological dictionaries that provide an explanation of the origin of words;

2. historical dictionaries, which reflect the vocabulary of various chronological sections, recorded in written monuments of certain eras and allow us to trace the history of words;

3. dictionaries containing historical and biographical information. “Cultural-historical information is an integral part of the general semantic-informational context within which the translator operates, and, therefore, without sufficient understanding of this “background”, the translator will not be able to adequately convey a foreign language text into his native language” (Krupnov) such Dictionaries are extremely useful, especially for novice translators,

4. word-formation dictionaries, illustrating the word-formation structure of lexical units;

5. grammatical dictionaries that give an idea of ​​the grammatical properties of a word;

6. spelling dictionaries that record the standard spelling of words;

7. dictionaries dedicated to the description of individual lexical-semantic categories of a language, such as synonymous and antonymic dictionaries. Synonym dictionaries, in addition to listing synonyms of a certain group, can suggest shades of meaning of words that are implemented in the text. To get a better feel for a word, synonym dictionaries often explain connotative meanings and provide guidelines for using synonyms in speech;

8. dictionaries that provide stylistic information that help to grasp the style of the translated text and select appropriate stylistic means in the native language. You can also turn to their advice if you have a question about the correctness of speech. As you know, “correct speech” is usually understood as “book speech,” but in recent years this concept has expanded somewhat and began to include not only general literary vocabulary, but also vocabulary of conversational styles, even slang. However, the translator may need to distinguish between different lexical layers; other dictionaries.

3. According to the unit of lexicographic description, these can be not only dictionaries of words, but also dictionaries of roots, morphemes, as well as phrases, phraseological units and quotations.

4. By purpose - dictionaries of errors, difficulties, etc.

5. By the number of languages ​​- multilingual and bilingual. Bilingual or, as they are sometimes called, translation dictionaries have the widest scope of application. Their popularity is explained by the clarity of revealing the meanings of words in a foreign language with the help of dictionary correspondences and equivalents; if there are no equivalents, then various explanations, illustrations and definitions are given. Bilingual or multilingual dictionaries, depending on the location in the dictionary entry of the native language, are divided into passive (native language on the right side) and active (native language on the left).

6. According to the arrangement of the material - ideographic, analogical (words are arranged not alphabetically, but according to semantic associations), inverse (in which words are arranged according to the alphabet of the final letters of the word). One type of ideographic dictionary is an educational-type ideographic dictionary or a thematic dictionary.

The typology of dictionaries is not limited to general and private dictionaries. Unlike explanatory dictionaries, in which dictionary entries are arranged alphabetically by the headword, in thesaurus dictionaries (also called ideographic dictionaries) vocabulary is organized according to thematic principle. The term "thesaurus" has two other meanings. One of them is a very complete, most complete dictionary; the second relates not to lexicography, but to general linguistics, as well as the theory of knowledge and the theory of communication: a thesaurus is the entire totality of human knowledge. Entire taxa - groups of lexemes united by proximity of meaning - act as a dictionary entry in a thesaurus dictionary. Ideographic dictionaries (thesauruses) are linguistic dictionaries in which the lexical composition of a language is presented in the form of systematized groups of words that are more or less close in meaning. Ideographic dictionaries represent and explain the semantic content of lexical units, but in solving this problem they go not from a single word, but from a concept to the expression of this concept in words. The main task of such dictionaries is to describe collections of words united by a common concept; this makes it easier for the reader to choose the most appropriate means for adequately expressing thoughts and promotes active language proficiency. The construction of ideographic dictionaries is based on the logical classification of the entire conceptual content of vocabulary. The semantic content of a word is revealed through its sequential inclusion in classes of concepts of different levels of generalization. The systematization of words in analogous (associative) dictionaries is based on psychological associations of objects or concepts called words. Lexical units are grouped into fields, in the center of each of which there is a word that combines other words that are to one degree or another close to it in meaning or associated with it in meaning.

In thematic dictionaries, words are grouped based on the commonality of the phenomena of reality they denote on certain topics.

The thematic principle of constructing the dictionary allows you to quickly find a word and expand your vocabulary in a relatively short time. The ideographic principle is a special approach in compiling dictionaries. Dictionaries compiled according to this principle do not simply absorb the synonymous resources of the language, but organize lexical-semantic information in a certain, logical-systemic manner. In an ideographic (thematic) dictionary, words are reduced to certain groups and arranged according to thematic criteria. In a broad sense, they can be interpreted as a description of the system of knowledge about reality possessed by an individual carrier of information or a group of carriers.

Features of the systematization of vocabulary in the dictionaries of K.Ya. System of arrangement of language material:

1. Key system - search by keys, determinants, all dictionary signs are distributed into meaningful categories ( ), the first sign of the category ( ”Ћс - general graphic element - “key”) is simple and is part of the remaining complex signs of this category. 1) Search for the key. 2) search by quantity. With all their apparent diversity, hieroglyphic signs - both complex and simple - are a graphic construction or a combination of a number of strictly defined standard graphic elements - hieroglyphic features. The graphic feature of a line is that it consists of one line and when writing it, the writing instrument does not come off the surface on which the record is made. The features and elements of hieroglyphs are written in a certain sequence. The order of writing strokes and elements should be known for two reasons: firstly, developing the skill of writing a hieroglyph with a strict sequence of strokes makes it easier to count the number of strokes of an unfamiliar hieroglyph in order to find it in a dictionary with hieroglyphs arranged in ascending order, and secondly, it helps faster write hieroglyphs, and then move on to semi-cursive and cursive writing.

An example of your own dictionary: “Russian-Chinese and Chinese-Russian Dictionary”, editors: Hu Guoan, Zhu Yiming, Xie Zaifu, Wu Keli. The characters are arranged according to the Chinese transcription phonetic alphabet. At the end of the dictionary there is a key index for searching for hieroglyphs in the dictionary. In the table of key characters, the numbers on the left indicate the order of the keys, the numbers on the right indicate the page in the dictionary (the number of strokes in the hieroglyph is written in bold).

2. Graphic system - 1) arrangement into groups according to the number of elements in the hieroglyph. 2) arrangement into 4 sections depending on the first graphic element. 3) Four-corner system, 4-corner encoding: the features that form the corners of the hieroglyph, depending on their configuration, are encoded with four single-digit numbers at the four corners, in the sequence: upper left, upper right, lower left, lower right, i.e. first digit second digit or 0 2 ’[ ’[ = 0212 third digit fourth digit 1 2.

The numbers used for the code are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0, each of which encodes certain traits:

The number 1 codes non-overlapping horizontal lines, written from left to right in the following options: , . For example, “y, ЋM.

The number 2 codes non-intersecting vertical lines and those that fold to the left, i.e. features written from right to left: , . For example, ‹Њ, ?.

The number 3 codes points and folding to the right, i.e. features written from left to right: , . For example, y, –’, ?.

The number 4 codes the intersections of two lines, regardless of their configurations: , . For example, ЊГ, ”з.

The number 5 codes a line that intersects two or more lines, regardless of their configuration: , . For example, –(, њч, ‘E.

The number 6 encodes closed configurations of square-type features: , . For example, Ќ‘, bL.

The number 7 codes broken lines that have an angle configuration: , as well as the same type of configuration formed by two lines: , . For example, “Ѓ, ЋК, ?, ђб.

The number 8 encodes configurations of features such as the hieroglyph “Є: ‹v, ђl, . For example, Є, -], ‰›, ЊЯ.

The number 9 encodes configurations of features such as the hieroglyph Џ¬: , . For example, ‰х, “–, ?.

The number 0 codes a point with a horizontal bar: . For example, Ће, а, Њѕ.

The number 0 also codes a line in the next corner if it is already fully coded in the previous one. For example, ? -B. search by 10 graphic elements. Thus, after encoding the hieroglyph, the user receives a code by which to look for the hieroglyph in the dictionary. But such code may not always be unique and is often accompanied by additional code.

3. Phonetic system - Phonetic tables: built on the principle of a coordinate grid, where each hieroglyph was placed at the intersection of the corresponding axes of initials (initial consonants) and finals (vocal parts). arrangement of hieroglyphs in alphabetical order since 1958

4. History of the development of lexicography in China

The first set of ancient meanings of words in the Chinese language is considered to be the explanatory dictionary “Erya/?‰l” (Similar to a sample), which is a collective work of scientists of ancient China in the 3rd-2nd centuries. BC The dictionary contains interpretations of words found in ancient written monuments. During the Qin dynasty, this dictionary was destroyed, and under the Han it was restored and gradually replenished as Chinese philology developed. As a result, the dictionary, in addition to the interpretation of hieroglyphs, contained information on spelling and grammar, was an encyclopedia and a collection of synonyms. In "?‰л" a systematization of hieroglyphs is given on a thematic basis.

The dictionary "Fangyan/ ыЊѕ" (Local Words) is considered the first dictionary of dialect vocabulary of the Chinese language of the Han Dynasty and early times, which was compiled by Yang Xiong (-k-Y) at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e. The dictionary provided an interpretation of the specific words of various dialects included in the literary language, indicating their place of origin; contained more than 9 thousand hieroglyphs. The dictionary also interpreted ancient vocabulary, so there is also its full title “Dialects of different kingdoms and interpretation of words of past times from messengers on light carriages/?Њ¬ЋgЋТµґ‘гЊкзЧ Кљ ыЊѕ”. Due to the fact that the author described each area of ​​distribution of the vocabulary, in the dictionary the hieroglyphs were grouped accordingly according to the areas where their use was observed.

The first dictionary in Chinese philology in which hieroglyphs were classified - according to graphic characteristics - was the dictionary "Shouwenjiezi/? ¶‰рЋљ" (Interpretation of simple writings and explanation of complex characters), created by Xu Shen (‹–ђT) in 121 AD . during the reign of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 8 AD). The dictionary was a collection of all the signs of the Chinese script of that time; the dictionary entry was a brief study of the etymology and modern meaning of the hieroglyph, but there were no systematic instructions for reading them. The author has divided all the hieroglyphs into content classes. He was the first to draw attention to the fact that words that form a certain semantic class are often denoted by hieroglyphs that have common semantic parts, for example, signs containing the semantic element “tree” denote wooden objects or names of trees.

The first dictionary that reflected the tendency to form a single pronunciation of hieroglyphs and has survived to this day is “Tseyun/ђShip” (Section of Rhymes), created at the end of the 6th century. Lu Fayan. It contained 12,158 hieroglyphs and was gradually expanded. The dictionary played a prominent role in the history of Chinese philology during the era of the centralized Tang and Song empires. At the end of the 8th century. based on the fantse reading system (”SђШ) - dividing the sounding syllable into shen (ђє) and yun (ip), written in two separate hieroglyphs, from the first of which only shen (initial) is taken, and from the second - yun (vocal part) - The first phonetic tables were compiled to visually represent the phonological system of the Chinese language.

The first dictionary containing a description of phonetics in this way is "Yun Jing/ip?" (Mirror of rhymes). The dictionary contained 43 tables, each of which was divided into four parts according to tones, initials were divided according to the nature of the consonants into five categories; the presence or absence of intermediate (semi-)vowels - medials - was taken into account. Subsequently, the tables and dictionaries of rhymes were duplicated many times, preserving the recording of the old sounds of hieroglyphs, which ultimately led to a discrepancy between the canonical fantse and the real pronunciation and rhyme patterns. Subsequently, outdated dictionaries were edited, which gradually became a bibliographic rarity, with the aim of preserving them by recording them in the author’s contemporary language and, of course, adding new vocabulary.

Spelling aids were also required with the correct indication of the style of hieroglyphs and its selection from graphic options. As an example of such a manual, we can mention the spelling dictionary “Longkanshoujian” (Mirror of the Receptacle of Wisdom), compiled in 997 by Xingjun. The material was divided into four sections, which were equivalent to the four tones of the Chinese language. All graphic variants of signs and their ancient outlines, reading according to fanz and meaning through a synonym were indicated. Signs conveying syllables of a certain tone were located according to the keys "? ¶‰рЋљ". In subsequent periods of history, gradually “outdated” dictionaries were republished and corrected, and new phonetic and non-phonetic dictionaries were created. They needed systematic replenishment and improvement due to the fact that methods of classifying signs gradually developed and improved, and dictionaries no longer met the requirements in terms of content and presentation of information.

In the 21st century Editing and reprinting of dictionaries published in the last century continues. The main thing that modern authors pursue is replenishing dictionaries with new vocabulary, eliminating unused or outdated words and phrases, and correcting some inaccuracies made during translation by the previous edition.

Thus, in 2000, an editorial group led by Xia Zhongyi at the publishing house "Shangwu Yinshuguan/Џ¤?€у??" and in 2005, the “Shanghai” “Chinese-Russian Dictionary/?‰в?“T” was once again republished in the Russian “Veche”. Despite the existence of the dictionary, it still remains one of the most fundamental and well-prepared Chinese-Russian dictionaries. Includes more than 50 thousand articles with vocabulary and phraseology of the Chinese language. In addition to the usual vocabulary, the dictionary includes frequently used dialect words, hieroglyphs and their combinations from the old book national literary Chinese language and special professional terminology. The dictionary uses a phonetic index of hieroglyphs (arranged according to the Chinese transcription phonetic alphabet), but mainly the hieroglyphs are grouped according to the key index. The dictionary mainly considers individual hieroglyphs as nested hieroglyphs, which are arranged in alphabetical order of the phonetic alphabet.

“New Chinese-Russian Dictionary / ђV?‰в?“T” 2007, edited by A.V. Kotov. compiled on the basis of a revised version of the 1990 edition of the “Chinese-Russian Minimum Dictionary”, which included about 4 thousand characters and 20 thousand lexical units. The modern dictionary includes 4,100 capitalized most common hieroglyphs and over 26 thousand words and lexical phrases. Additionally, it includes more than 100 characters and 6.5 thousand words and expressions, including the latest vocabulary that has entered the Chinese language in recent years. The author made maximum use of the latest lexicographic works, the Chinese press, and modern fiction. The hieroglyphs are arranged according to the phonetic principle in the order of the letters of the Chinese transcription alphabet based on the Latin script, with the help of which the pronunciation norms of the modern Chinese language Ѓ'К? are recorded in the dictionary, simplified and complete versions of the hieroglyphs are given. For the convenience of writing unfamiliar hieroglyphs, an index by the number of strokes is included.

Edited by M.M. Badanina published the “Russian-Chinese and Chinese-Russian Dictionary/‰в??‰в?“T” in 2007. The dictionary contains more than 18 thousand words and phrases in the Russian-Chinese part and more than 18 thousand words and phrases in the Chinese- Russian part. The dictionary includes the most commonly used words, phrases and phraseological units, and the necessary grammatical information. In the Chinese-Russian part, the characters are arranged in accordance with the Latin alphabet, and only capital characters are accompanied by phonetic transcription based on the Latin script. Inside the dictionary entry, the second and subsequent hieroglyphs are arranged in increasing order of the number of strokes. In my opinion, a significant drawback in both parts of the dictionary is the incomplete phonetic transcription (the reading is indicated only for the main hieroglyph, in the Russian part it is absent altogether), which, of course, is necessary, since the user may not know the reading and needs a hint in the form of this transcription . Badanina M.M. Explanatory dictionaries of the Chinese language. Monolingual explanatory dictionaries of the Chinese language are divided into hieroglyphic dictionaries “Tzмdian” and word dictionaries “Tcнdian.” Hieroglyphic dictionaries present the graphics of characters (full and simplified spellings), their reading and basic dictionary meanings. This category of dictionaries includes the most popular Chinese pocket-sized dictionary “Xinhua” (Xоnhub zмdian, ђV?Ћљ“T). It contains about 8 thousand hieroglyphs.

In lexical dictionaries, as well as in hieroglyphic ones, a single syllable written in a hieroglyph is taken as a basis. However, after listing the main dictionary meanings, such a dictionary lists a number of derived lexical units of a given morpheme. Among the explanatory dictionaries of the Chinese language, focused on historical texts and classical Chinese literature, one should name “Tsyhai” (Снhai, ЋЉC, lit. “Sea of ​​Words”) and “Tsyyuan” (Сньььн, ЋЊЊ№, lit. “Source”) words"). Their search engine is a standard list of 214 hieroglyphic keys (“Ћс bшшу “key”, lit. “section head”). The most authoritative and complete lexicographical sources of the beginning of the 21st century are rightfully considered the “Dictionary of the Modern Chinese Language” (Xiandai hanyu cнdian, ?'г???“T - 56 thousand dictionary entries) and the “Modern Standard Dictionary of the Chinese Language” (Xiandai hanyu guоfаn cнdian, ?'г???д-?“T - 68 thousand dictionary entries).

References

1. Kozhina M.N. - Stylistics of the Russian language, M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2008. - 464 p.

2. Kurdyumov V.A. - Chinese language course. Theoretical grammar єєУпАнВУУп·ЁЅМіМ, M.: Citadel-Trade; Lada, 2005 - 576 p.

3. Morkovkin V.V. - Experience in ideographic description of vocabulary, M.: Publishing house. Moscow University, 1977. -- 168 p.

4. Denisov P.N., Morkovkin V.V. (ed.). - Dictionary of combinability of words in the Russian language, M.: Russian language, 1983. - 688 p.

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Lexicography as a science is the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography - from Greek. lexicos– relating to the word and grapho I'm writing.

The main task of lexicography is the scientific development of principles and techniques for dictionary description of vocabulary, as well as the compilation of dictionaries themselves, reflecting various aspects of the consideration of words in the language system.

One of the most important concepts in lexicography is dictionary type, determined by a set of essential characteristics: for example, the selected object of description, as well as a certain aspect of such a description, the method of presenting linguistic units (the structure of a dictionary entry or a certain fragment of the dictionary), the nature and methods of semantization of vocabulary units, the volume of the dictionary, etc.

A system of interconnected and at the same time opposed to each other dictionaries of various types forms general typology of dictionaries.

The principles of identifying different types of dictionaries and their classification were developed and substantiated in Russian linguistics by L. V. Shcherba in his work “An Experience in the General Theory of Lexicography” (1940). When systematizing the types of dictionaries, L. V. Shcherba proceeded from their characteristic oppositions.

Opposition one: Academic type dictionary – reference dictionary.

An academic dictionary, normative in nature, answers first of all the question “Is it possible to use this or that already known word in this or that case?” In the academic dictionary, the language is represented representatively, as completely as possible, as a single integral system. Lexical units receive a comprehensive and detailed interpretation here. Such dictionaries have a significant volume of vocabulary. An example of an academic-type dictionary is the “Dictionary of Modern Russian Literary Language” of the USSR Academy of Sciences (vol. 1 - 17, M.; L., 1950 - 1965).

A reference dictionary, according to L. V. Shcherba, is a book where one looks primarily in order to find out the meaning of this or that word. It does not cover the entire language system and includes only part of the words that form it. Being also usually normative, such a dictionary, unlike an academic one, is characterized by a smaller volume of vocabulary and a more concise interpretation of words. Reference dictionaries include explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, phraseological, spelling, spelling and many others. One of the most popular reference dictionaries is “Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov (ed. 18th, 1986). A dictionary of a writer’s language is essentially also a reference dictionary, since not all the vocabulary that forms the system is usually found in the writer’s works.

It should be borne in mind that there is no sharp boundary between an academic dictionary and a reference dictionary. L. V. Shcherba considered the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by D. N. Ushakov in this sense to be more or less a compromise dictionary.

Opposition two: encyclopedic dictionary - a general dictionary. Examples of a dictionary of the first type are various kinds of terminological dictionaries, special (industry) and general encyclopedias, which provide an explanation of words - scientific concepts (and not the meanings of words), describe various kinds of realities, historical events, contain information about prominent figures in the field of science, culture, art, political and state life of society. An encyclopedic dictionary, as a rule, includes nouns and does not provide linguistic (lexical, grammatical, stylistic and other) characteristics of the words that make up its dictionary.

The general dictionary in this contrast is a linguistic dictionary, the main purpose of which is to reveal the meanings of words and expressions, as well as other proper linguistic properties of its units.

Opposition three: thesaurus(“thesaurus”) - regular dictionary.

As a dictionary that strives to maximally cover the vocabulary of a language, thesaurus should include all the words that appear in the texts at least once, all the “linguistic material” for each word. This is a dictionary-treasury where everything written and said in a given language is recorded. The Dictionary of the Russian Language, published under the editorship of A. A. Shakhmatov starting in 1897 and remaining unfinished, is approaching the thesaurus type. Suffice it to say that the dictionary entry compiled by L. V. Shcherba play, containing the richest, most diverse linguistic material and developed in the most detailed manner lexicographically, occupies 31 columns of neat text in this dictionary.

An ordinary dictionary, for example an explanatory one, contains common, but not all, words and illustrative language material limited to one degree or another, sufficient to achieve the task assigned to the dictionary.

Opposition four: regular dictionary - ideographic dictionary(thesaurus).

A regular dictionary, for example an explanatory one, is organized based on the phonetic (graphic) forms of words, arranged in alphabetical order for easy retrieval. It reflects the semasiological grouping of vocabulary from signs to meanings.

L. V. Shcherba uses a different term in this contrast - ideological dictionary (under the influence of the French tradition: dictionnaire ideologique), which, however, did not become common in Russian lexicography and gave way to two other equivalent terms: ideographic dictionary and thesaurus. To distinguish the latter term as a synonym for an ideographic dictionary from the name of a treasury dictionary, it is advisable to convey them graphically in different ways, respectively, in Russian and Latin letters: thesaurus - thesaurus.

An ideographic dictionary, or thesaurus, on the contrary, gives a description of vocabulary from meanings to signs (to available means of expressing meaning), systematizing “word-concepts” into lexical-semantic groups and fields, i.e. onomasiologically.

The most famous and repeatedly published foreign ideographic dictionaries (Roget P. M. Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases; Dornseiff F. Der deutsche Wortschatz nach Sachgruppen; Casares J. Diccionario ideologico de la lengua espaniola, etc.) are close in the composition of their dictionaries to thesaurus 'y; hence the transfer of the name thesaurus to an ideographic dictionary, which is a “reversed” thesaurus, where lexical units are located in the direction from meanings to signs expressing them.

As an example, let's take the ideographic dictionary of the German language by F. Dornseiff. The entire lexical composition of the language is divided here into 20 classes:

1. Inorganic world. Substances.

2. Flora and fauna. Man (physical entity).

Space. Position in space. Form.

4. Magnitude. Weight. Number. Degree.

5. Existence. Attitude. Causality.

7. Light. Color. Sound. Temperature. Weight. State. Smell. Taste.

8. Movement.

9. Desires and actions.

10. Feelings.

11. Feelings. Affects. Character traits.

12. Thinking.

13. Signs. Message. Language.

14. Writing. Knowledge (science).

15. Art.

16. Society and public relations.

17. Tools. Technique.

18. Housekeeping.

19. Right. Ethics.

20. Religion. Supernatural.

Each class is subdivided, in turn, into semantic groups, which, as a rule, include a whole range of concepts represented in the language by a series of words. The search in the dictionary for the necessary words, which, as can be seen, are arranged not alphabetically, but according to the commonality of their meanings, is carried out using a special alphabetical index.

An ideographic dictionary is an active type dictionary: it is necessary for speakers to select the necessary words that express this or that meaning, this or that specific meaning, to generate speech, as well as to systematize vocabulary on a thematic basis for educational purposes. This explains its great value for teaching Russian as a foreign language.

The most complete picture of the ideographic (in the curriculum - thematic) systematization of Russian vocabulary is given by the thematic Russian-Bulgarian dictionary by K. Babov and A. Vorgul, in which over 25,000 words (LSV) are grouped in eight large semantic areas: “Human society”, “ Man", "Housing", "Caring for People", "Economy", "Education and Culture", "Physical Education and Sports" and "Nature". Each of the areas is divided into topics (for example, “Enlightenment and Culture” - into the topics “Education”, “Language and Literature”, “Book”, “Broadcasting”, “Fine Arts”, “Theatre”, “Cinema” and “Circus” ") and further into subtopics (for example, “Book” - into the subtopics “Creation of a book” and “Librarianship”) and microtopics (for example, “Creation of a book” - into microtopics “Author’s work”, “Review”, “Editorial”, “Printing”, “Proofreading”, “Bindery”, “Publishing” and “Book Design”).

Opposition five: explanatory dictionary - translation dictionary.

The explanatory dictionary is intended primarily for native speakers of a given language: words and expressions are explained in it in their native language. The main purpose of an explanatory dictionary is to promote the normalization of speech and explain certain lexical units of the language that are, for some reason, not entirely clear.

A translated dictionary, such as Russian-English or French-Russian, is necessary to understand texts in a foreign language.

L. V. Shcherba emphasized the objective difficulty of compiling bilingual (translation) dictionaries and at the same time the possible negative consequences of their use, which are rooted in the assumption of the adequacy of the lexical systems of the languages ​​being compared and can lead to a misconception about the meanings of words. Since the volumes of meanings and the use of correlative lexical units in different languages ​​very often do not coincide: the French bleu corresponds in Russian and blue And blue, on the contrary, in French and glass And cup will be verre; German Fabel means “fable”, but this word has another meaning in German - “fabula”, which the Russian word does not have fable. Translation dictionaries do not so much provide real knowledge of foreign words as help to guess their meaning in the text.

Opposition six: non-historical dictionary - historical dictionary.

Non-historical dictionaries are contrasted with a historical dictionary, which gives the history of words over a certain period of time, reflecting successive changes in the lexical system of the language as a whole. As an example of a historical dictionary, one can name the “Dictionary of the Russian Language of the 11th - 17th Centuries”, compiled at the Institute of the Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

The above main oppositions (oppositions) of dictionaries give an idea of ​​their main classification types, so to speak, of “pure”, “ideal” dictionaries (academic, ideographic, explanatory, historical and others). These are peculiar differential features with the help of which it is possible, on the one hand, to build a general typology of dictionaries, and on the other, to describe any specific dictionary in contrast to others. The characteristics of this or that really existing dictionary can be given using a set of such differential features (“ideal”, “pure” types), since many of the features, firstly, are not mutually exclusive, and secondly, strictly opposed in the very dictionary For example, the seventeen-volume “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” is primarily academic in the nature of its reflection of vocabulary as an integral system, its normativity and explanatory in the type of semantization of words; at the same time, it is characterized by elements of an encyclopedic dictionary in the explanation of a number of terms and a historical dictionary, since when interpreting a significant number of words, the nature of the change and development of their semantics is taken into account (in the article “From the Editor” the dictionary is called explanatory-historical and normative).

In addition to the above oppositions, dictionaries are characterized advantageous aspect or the level of description of the language: these can be the semantics of words, their semantic proximity or opposition, the origin of words, their spelling and pronunciation, word-formation structure, phraseology, etc. Each aspect is considered in the corresponding dictionaries.

TOPIC 17. Language and writing. Basic concepts of writing theory. Types of writing. Writing in the Eastern European cultural area. Writing in the Western European cultural area

Basic concepts of writing theory

Natural human language arises and functions as a system of sound signs, the denotations of which are, first of all, elements of our experience, i.e. various phenomena of reality, and the significations of which form mental units - concepts. Sound matter is the primary and basic form of existence of language. The inventory units of this system (words and morphemes, as well as phraseological units) and the rules for combining them in speech are reproducible in countless constructive formations such as phrases, sentences and texts/discourses.

Writing is intended to record through graphic signs in order to transmit over long distances and preserve over time what is generated in spoken speech. Thanks to the articulateness of speech, i.e. its division into reproducible inventory units, it becomes (at a certain stage of social evolution) the second hypostasis of a particular language. This is also a symbolic system in structure and communicative in function, the elements of which are graphic signs whose denotations are not phenomena of reality, but inventory units of language reproduced in speech.

Writing in the proper sense, like language, in principle must contain in its inventory a finite number of standard, reproducible graphic units (graphemes) and rules for their combination.

The grapheme is the basic unit of the writing system. As a unit of a sign system, it enters into paradigmatic relationships with other graphemes of the same system and, in opposition to other graphemes, reveals its distinctive (differential) features, thanks to the totality of which it is recognized as such and is not confused with other graphemes. So, Russian grapheme IN different from grapheme b and graphemes R the presence of two hemispheres on the right, while b And R are characterized, in contrast to IN, the presence of only one hemisphere on the right, and differ among themselves by the location of this hemisphere in the lower or upper part of the vertical line. The presence of this feature turns out to be a common (integrating) feature of the three indicated graphemes.

At the same time, each grapheme acts as a member of the syntagmatic series and can have descriptive variants depending on its position. Thus, in Greek writing the grapheme sigma appears in the form of two allographs, one of which occurs only in the final position, and the other in all other positions. This principle of rendering [s] was repeated in the Gothic script, as well as in the so-called Fraktur - a Gothic script that was used primarily in Germany until the mid-20th century. In Hebrew writing (Yiddish and Hebrew), a number of graphemes have initial and final allographs. In Arabic writing, one grapheme can appear in the form of four allographs (when connected to another grapheme on the right, when connected on both sides, when connected on the left and when there is no connection).

The main elements of the alphabetic graphic system are letters. They can have their own names, have a descriptive form, a sound meaning, and in a number of writing systems, a numerical meaning. Allographs of one letter are its handwritten and printed (typewritten and typographic) styles.

Thus, we can talk about allography in cases of straight and oblique outlines of the letter d (d and d). Allographs of printed letters may bear the features of a particular typeface. To some extent, allographs of the same letter can be recognized as its design as a capital letter (at the beginning of proper names, at the beginning of nouns in German graphics, significant words in a number of graphic systems) and as a small letter in others cases. However, we should not forget that capital letters often carry an additional (in addition to conveying sound meanings) symbolic load.

As for the sound meanings of letters, the rules of graphics of a given language usually distinguish between their primary and secondary functions. So, the main function of the Russian letter d consists of denoting the stop voiced anterior lingual non-palatalized phoneme /d/: dot, passed, blow, smoke. At the same time (according to the laws of Russian graphics, which also take into account the syllabic principle) the letter d means before and, e, e, yu stop voiced anterior lingual palatalized phoneme /d’/: coming, uncle, dunes, children, game. The secondary function of this letter (in accordance with the morphemic, or morphological, principle of Russian graphics) is to convey the stop voiceless frontal non-palatalized phoneme /t/ ( pond, ice) and the stop voiceless frontal palatalized phoneme /t’/: ( sit down, after all), and both of these voiceless phonemes alternate (according to the law of assimilation before voiceless consonants or at the end of a word) with their corresponding voiced ones.

If we carry out the analysis in the direction from the letter to the phonemes it denotes, we can talk about the polysemy of the letter. If we conduct the analysis in the opposite direction - from a given phoneme to a set of graphemes denoting it, for example, establishing such methods of graphically displaying the Russian phoneme /t’/ as t, d, t, d(flight, ice, fly, bear), then we have the right to talk about homonymy of the corresponding letters.

Graphics formulate the rules of correspondence between letters and phonemes, i.e. reading rules and writing rules. The choice between the possible methods of fixing specific words and morphemes in writing in a given language is prescribed by orthography.

The graphics rules of the corresponding language can assign a combination of two or more letters to a certain phoneme. Thus, in French the phoneme /S/ is represented by the digraph ch(chat ‘cat’), the English phoneme /S/ is indicated by the digraph sh(shine ‘shine’), the German phoneme /S/ requires a three-letter combination (trigraph) for its designation sch(Schatz ‘treasure’).

In a number of graphic systems there are ligatures (for example, a connection in French in one character O And e, connection A And e in one character in Danish script; numerous ligatures in the Devanagari script serving Sanskrit, Hindi and some other Indian languages). Letters denoting sequences of phonemes are also common (for example, Greek letters psi And xi, letter X in the Latin script and in many writing systems based on it).

The graphics of a particular language include not only letters, but also superscript or subscript diacritics, which either, combined with the letters of the main inventory, provide the transmission of phonemes, or serve to indicate prosodic properties (stress, tone, length), or provide differentiation in writing homonym words. In Russian writing, diacritic letters are th And e. Diacritics are used in the graphics of such European languages ​​as Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, German, Dutch, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and many others .

In Arabic and Hebrew writing, diacritics are used to denote vowel elements that do not have their own letters, i.e. for information about the corresponding vocalization. In Devanagari, diacritics appear when fixing syllables in which the consonant phoneme is followed not by /a/, but by some other vowel phoneme.

The number of graphemes can also include punctuation marks, which perform rather auxiliary functions (dividing a statement and indicating the nature of the connection between selected fragments of a statement, quotation, distinguishing the communicative purpose of a sentence). The space also performs a delimiting (discriminating) function.

Types of writing

Writing as a sign system, in principle, must contain in its inventory a finite number of regularly reproduced, invariant in its essence graphic units (graphemes) and the rules for their combination when constructing detailed texts. Each grapheme must have as its denotation the same unit of sounding speech. Such a unit can be a meaningful unit (word or morpheme) or a one-sided, non-sign unit (syllable or phoneme).

Accordingly, there are such basic types of writing as logographic (verbal, more broadly, verbal-morphemic), syllabic (syllabic, syllabographic) and alphabetic-sound (alphabetic, or phonemic, or phonemographic; in some graphics systems, different signs are used for allophones of one phoneme) .

Logograms are to some extent focused on words (and morphemes) as units that have both meaning and sound. The logogram thus turns out to be a graphic sign for a linguistic sign. Syllabograms record a certain sequence of sounds (a syllable of one type or another). Phonemograms have as their denotations individual phonemes (or their allophones). Thus, the syllabogram and phonemogram correspond not to linguistic signs, but to sound units in the structure of the sound shells (exponents) of linguistic signs.

We can further call ideograms, representing signs for certain ideas, concepts, for words, but in principle in abstraction from the sound side of the word. Ideographic systems are convenient for use in communication between speakers of different languages ​​and different, very different dialects of the same language, but they are unsuitable for recording spoken speech in languages ​​that have developed inflection capabilities. Thus, Chinese writing, which is logographic, is still closer in essence to the ideographic type. It turned out to be very stable, having been preserved for almost three millennia in its main features, since it corresponds well to the isolating structure of the Chinese word. But for the Korean and, to a large extent, Japanese languages, which initially used Chinese writing, due to the different structure of word forms in them, new paths were subsequently chosen for the development of their own graphic systems.

The distinction between logographic, syllabic and phonemic types of writing is very arbitrary, since different principles can be used in the graphic system of the same language. Yes, Russian letters e, e, yu, i are syllabic signs (/je/, /jo/, /ju/, /ja/). Russian letter combinations are built according to the syllabic principle le, le, lyu, la(/l`e/, /l`o/, /l`u/, /l`a/). Russian orthography follows the morphemic principle (for the sake of identical spelling of different allomorphs of the same morpheme), recommending maintaining the graphic identity, for example, of the root morpheme VOD-, realized in the form of variants (allomorphs) /vod/, /vad/, /vad`, / vod"/, /vot/.

The text may include ideograms, i.e. signs that are not focused on fixing the sound side of speech units: There are 10 study groups in the first year.

In Japanese writing, logograms (historically dating back to or based on Chinese characters) are intended to record simple words and roots, and syllabic marks (syllabograms) are used to convey grammatical affixes. Korean writing has signs for phonemes, but combines them into a kind of syllabogram. The combination of syllabic and phonemic principles is observed in the Devanagari script.

Many modern graphic systems are predominantly phonemic. But along with them, predominantly syllabic and predominantly logographic systems continue to exist. Logographic systems (such as Chinese) have many thousands or tens of thousands of characters in their inventory. A large number of graphemes makes them difficult to memorize and complicates the process of learning a language, but the text in logographic notation takes up less space. Syllabic systems (such as the Cypriot script of the 6th-4th centuries BC) have the order of several hundred or tens of hundreds of graphemes, due to which their assimilation is easier. Phonemic systems make do with several dozen characters. Their assimilation is not very difficult, but texts written using phonemic graphics take up quite a lot of space.

But logographic, syllabic and phonemic systems were created by human genius relatively recently, about 6000 years ago. Our ancestors began depicting people and animals in their drawings on stone and on cave walls tens of thousands of years ago. But these drawings were not reduced to a writing system.

The formation of writing in the proper sense of the word was based on a long search for optimal means for preserving information. Writing was preceded by so-called proto-writings.

At the initial stage, they did not represent stable systems with regularly reproduced signs. Thus, to transmit messages, notches in trees, branches or stones, and knots placed in a special way along the route were used as mnemonic signs. A declaration of war could be indicated by a sent arrow. The Indians of South and Central America created quipus - a kind of knotted messages. Kipus were often used as decorations.

In North America (among the Iroquois, Hurons, etc.), wampums, which are strips woven from laces, became widespread. The multi-colored shells woven into them were assigned different symbolic meanings (war, threat, enmity, peace, happiness, prosperity). A drawing could be made from shells (for example, a red ax on a black background - a declaration of war). Wampums could serve as money equivalents. Thus, on one of the surviving wampums, the Iroquois tribe informed the American government that it did not intend to recognize him as its father, but was ready to be its brother. Each brother has his own path. Drawings or a series of drawings could be used telling about some events (for example, about a successful hunt or the campaign of the king of Upper Egypt against Lower Egypt). But such signs, conveying semantic information about something, did not correlate with the sounding speech, its meaningful units.

The next step was the creation of stable systems of mnemonic signs. Pictography emerged, used to convey messages through drawings of individual objects. When such drawings, pictograms (more or less similar to the depicted objects, which are their iconic signs) begin (in the Middle East from 8 thousand BC) to be regularly reproduced in the same or similar functions, we can talk about the formation of ideographic systems

Ideograms can be correlated with significant words, although in abstraction from their grammatical form. The sign for the object “leg” can, by association, express the concept of ‘go’. The ideogram now becomes a logogram, i.e. sign not for a concept in general, but for a word or an associative series of words.

At the next stage, such a sign, firstly, becomes increasingly schematized, i.e. loses the property of iconicity and acquires the property of symbolism, and secondly, it acquires the ability to express not only a given word, but also another word that sounds the same as it, as well as a function word or a grammatical morpheme, and sometimes just an identical sounding syllable. Verbal-morphemic and verbal-syllabic types of writing are formed.

It is this transition from proto-writing to writing itself that is observed in numerous ancient drawings in Egypt, Sumer, Elam, in proto-Indian drawings of the 6th - 3rd millennium BC, in the picture writing of the Aztecs, in the Mayan letter.

Dictionary as a subject for the study of lexicography. The concept of vocabulary and vocabulary. Dictionary volume. Components of a dictionary entry. Heading word. Linguistic commentary. Ways to interpret lexical meaning.

Types of lexicographic marks. Types of illustrations.

Let's get acquainted with the basic concepts and terms of lexicography that both the compiler and the user have to encounter in every dictionary.

The central concept of lexicography and the subject of its study is the dictionary.

In the modern understanding, a dictionary is an ordered (systematized) list (list) of linguistic units of the same level (usually words) with certain linguistic comments, interpretations, etc., usually in the form of a separate book or series of books.

Thus, we see that the original narrow meaning of the term (collection of words) is now understood broadly: not necessarily words, because these can be dictionaries of morphemes or phraseological units, etc. Let us also emphasize three other points in the definition of the concept of “dictionary”: ordering - the described units are arranged in a certain way for speed of finding or other purposes: most often alphabetically, but there may be other ways of organizing vocabulary (clustered, frequency, semantic, etc. ), which we will look at later; linguistic commentary - one or another aspect of the description of a word (spelling, pronunciation, usage, education, semantics, etc.); usually in the form of a separate book - however, a dictionary can also be an appendix to a textbook or other book (this is exactly what the first dictionaries were).

The main unit of the dictionary is the vocable, i.e. word described in the dictionary.

The totality (list) of all vocables constitutes the vocabulary of the dictionary. The problem of the vocabulary is one of the central ones in lexicography, because The type of dictionary and the nature of the description of the vocabulary depend on the selection of words. For example, in a normative explanatory dictionary, only words of the literary language are included in the dictionary, therefore, non-normative vocabulary is excluded: vernacular, jargon, dialect words. The vocabulary of the spelling dictionary includes only vocabulary with difficulties and pronunciation options, etc.

The number of words (vocabularies) described in the dictionary makes up the volume of the dictionary. Typically, information about the volume of the dictionary is given on the title page of the dictionary or in the annotation. For example, the largest dictionary in terms of volume is the four-volume “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” by V.I. Dahl - it contains more than 200 thousand words. One-volume "Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. S.A. Kuznetsova (1998) contains 130 thousand words. The seventeen-volume academic “Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language” (1950-1965) contains about 120 thousand words, and the four-volume academic “Dictionary of the Russian Language” in the 2nd edition (1980-1984) contains about 90 thousand words. As you can see, volume is not the number of volumes, which is explained not so much by the number of vocables as by the completeness (detail or brevity) of their description, but by the number of units described.

The main structural unit of the dictionary is the dictionary entry. This is a relatively autonomous section of the dictionary, introduced by the head word, in which it receives one or another linguistic characteristic. Thus, it can be understood that each dictionary entry usually describes only one vocable.

However, this is not true for all types of dictionaries. For example, in some dictionaries (cluster type) the dictionary entry also includes derived words with the same root or a semantically (thematically) close group of words. In dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, a dictionary entry includes the entire synonymous series or antonymous pair, etc. Nevertheless, only one word in a dictionary entry is considered the main word: it is, as it were, an introductory word to the dictionary entry and therefore is called a heading. This word is, as it were, a representative of a lexeme in the dictionary, therefore it is given in a conditional initial (dictionary) form: indefinite form of verbs (infinitive), nominative singular case of names, masculine adjectives and participles. In some dictionaries (for example, spelling dictionaries), the dictionary entry is limited to this. Such dictionaries are called one-way dictionaries. Most dictionaries contain more or less detailed and varied (or specific) linguistic information, or linguistic commentary. Such dictionaries are called two-way. Thus, in the structure of a dictionary entry there are, as it were, two sides: the left (heading word) and the right (linguistic information, i.e. everything that is said about this word). First of all, this includes the interpretation of the meaning of the word. In addition, the components of a dictionary entry are lexicographical notes and illustrations.

Linguistic information is presented in the dictionary in certain ways, established in the lexicographic tradition, which are called the metalanguage of the dictionary (i.e., a special, sometimes conventional language of description). First of all, this includes methods (techniques) of interpretation of lexical and grammatical meaning.

There are traditional, centuries-old ways of interpreting the lexical meaning of a word, or dictionary definitions.

Interpretation is a definition, explanation of the lexical meaning (of a word or phraseological unit). The term was first used to define the type of his dictionary by V.I. Dahl, who wrote on the title of the dictionary: “The dictionary is called explanatory because it not only translates one word into another, but interprets and explains the details of the meaning of words and concepts subordinate to them.”

The following methods of interpreting meanings (types of dictionary definitions) are traditionally used:

1) descriptive - the most complete way of interpretation: it is a detailed description of the meaning (in the form of a so-called predicative periphrasis, such as “N - ...”) with a listing of the characteristics of the subject, both general, generic, and particular, distinctive (distinguishing from others), from which the concept is formed. For example:

Spoon - “a piece of cutlery for scooping up liquid or crumbly food”;

Deaf - “devoid of the sense of hearing”;

Smear - “to cover with a layer of liquid or greasy.”

A variation of the descriptive method is word-formation interpretation, which is used only for derived words - in this case, the meaning is explained through the generating word. For example:

To turn green - “to become green”;

Librarian - “library worker”;

Silver - “made of silver.”

Formally, a variety of descriptive definitions is the so-called. objective method of interpretation - explaining the meaning through a familiar object. Adjectives denoting color are usually interpreted this way:

White - “the color of chalk, milk, snow”;

Red - “the color of blood”;

Orange - “the color of orange.”

2) Often in dictionaries (especially short ones) more compact methods of interpretation are used: synonymous (by selecting synonyms) or identifying (a synonym identical in meaning is introduced using the words the same as):

Greedy - “greedy, selfish”;

Eyes - “the same as eyes.”

Dictionaries often use a mixed interpretation: referential and synonymous, and sometimes antonymous. For example:

Kind - “treating people with goodwill; responsive; opposite: evil."

3) In some cases, instead of interpreting a word, a reference is simply given to another word (usually using the mark see or some grammatical mark) - this method is called referential, and they resort to it when the words do not differ in lexical meaning, but differ grammatical meaning (for example, part of speech):

Rounding - see "rounding";

Golden - see "gold";

Blunting is unbearable. to “blunt”;

Sultry - adv. from "sultry".

The indicated methods of interpreting meanings are used in all explanatory dictionaries of the 19th-20th centuries (and some in earlier dictionaries: for example, synonymous interpretation). As we can see, they use natural language words to describe meanings. All of these methods use direct nominative interpretations. Recently, new, unconventional ways of interpreting meanings have begun to be developed.

One of them is the use of integral “interpretative sentences”, adopted in the new “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language”, ed. D.V. Dmitrieva (2003), based on the idea of ​​connecting words with specific objects of reality. For example, the word HOUSE is interpreted not simply as “a room for human habitation,” but in another way:

HOUSE. A house is a structure that has a roof, walls, windows and rooms inside in which people live or work (Illustrations). A house is a room, for example, a room, an apartment, etc., where a person lives (Illustrations). If you do something, for example work, from home, then you do it in your house, apartment, etc.

More examples from this dictionary:

SHUT UP. “If someone is silent, it means someone has stopped talking, singing, or making any sounds.”

CRIMINAL. “Criminal is an action that contains or itself constitutes a violation of the law (Criminal Intent).

Another type of non-traditional interpretation is the use of the so-called. “language of semantic primitives”, i.e. a conditional, formal description language consisting of a small set of specially selected simple words and constructions and even formulas. It is used in the upcoming “Integral Dictionary of the Russian Language,” ed. Yu.D. Apresyan. Example:

PROMISE. “X promises Y that he will do P = knowing or believing that Y is interested in P, despite possible difficulties, X says this because he wants to be believed, realizing that if he does not do P, they will stop him believe".

Many types of linguistic information about a word (for example, grammatical or stylistic characteristics) are given very briefly in traditional dictionaries, using special lexicographic marks (abbreviated words). Labels also differ depending on the type of linguistic information. In modern dictionaries (of various types, not just explanatory ones) the following types of marks are traditionally used:

1) Grammatical marks - indications of the part of speech, grammatical form, declension features and other grammatical characteristics. For example:

Oak, a; plural: oaks, -ov; m. (Read: a noun, masculine, changes according to cases: usually only the endings of the nominal and gender cases are given).

Golden, oh, oh, oh. (Read: adjective, changes according to gender, number and case).

It’s impossible to speak. (Read: verb, imperfect form).

2) Semantic marks - indications of the specifics of the semantics of a word, for example, the type of meaning (direct or figurative - in the latter case the semantic mark “transformative” is placed). For example:

Golden - 2. trans. Color similar to gold (Golden hair).

3) Stylistic marks - indicating the stylistic coloring of the word: colloquial. (colloquial), book. (book), simple. (colloquial), etc. For example:

Baba is simple. and region Wife.

4) Expressive marks - indicating the expressive coloring of the word: iron. (ironically), jokingly. (jokingly), caress. (affectionately), etc. For example:

Boss - about a leader, a boss in general (usually joking);

5) Historical notes - indicating the dynamics of use or the historical perspective of the word (obsolete, historical, - for outdated words and concepts; new - for new words). For example:

The capital is outdated. Same as feast;

Briefing - new. Press information meeting.

6) Functional marks - indicating the scope of use of the word (usually for regional or professional words): region, special. Examples:

Bochag - region A hole at the bottom of a river, lake, swamp; whirlpool.

Baba (2) - special. Hammer, pile driver.

As illustrations (demonstrations of the use of a word in speech, context) in dictionaries they use:

1) sayings (phrases typical for a given word), for example:

Green. 1.Colors of grass, foliage. Green leaves.

Green. 2. Unripe (about fruits). The grapes are still quite green.

3) quotes (usually from fiction), for example:

Green. 3.Inexperienced due to youth. He treated me like the greenest teenager (Dostoevsky).

4) proverbs and sayings, for example: Young is green.

The set of components of a dictionary entry is determined by the type of dictionary. For example, the most complete set of components is presented in explanatory dictionaries, the least - in spelling and similar one-way dictionaries. Some explanatory or educational dictionaries cover so many description parameters that each of them is highlighted (visually, graphically) in a special zone: the grammar zone, the compatibility zone, the meaning zone, the illustration zone, etc.

The nature of the description of a word (metalanguage) is determined by the goals and objectives of the dictionary.

Determining the type of dictionary, i.e. the question of the classification of dictionaries is one of the main issues of theoretical lexicography. We will look at this in the next section.